diff --git a/Changes b/Changes
index 79d0bbc..5c4f541 100644
--- a/Changes
+++ b/Changes
@@ -1,3 +1,9 @@
+        - Conversion of standard TEI P5 should now work, at least
+          in some cases.
+        - Option --xmlid-to-textsigle <from-regex>@<to-c/to-d/to-t>
+          added to convert standard P5 text id attributes to I5
+          sigles with three parts.
+
 2.3.4 2022-11-09
         - Improve stability of XML entity replacement.
         - Check version for script and KorAP-Tokenizer
diff --git a/Readme.pod b/Readme.pod
index 5dff430..b214dce 100644
--- a/Readme.pod
+++ b/Readme.pod
@@ -152,6 +152,21 @@
 Expects a comma-separated list of tags to be ignored when the structure
 is parsed. Content of these tags however will be processed.
 
+=item B<--xmlid-to-textsigle> <from-regex>@<to-c/to-d/to-t>
+
+Expects a regular replacement expression (separated by a B<@> between the
+search and the replacement) to convert text id attributes to text sigles
+with three parts (separated by B</>).
+
+Example:
+
+  tei2korapxml  \
+    --xmlid-to-textsigle 'ICC.German\.([^.]+\.[^.]+)\.(.+)@ICCGER/$1/$2' \
+    -tk - < t/data/icc_german_sample.p5.xml
+
+Converts text id `ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.G11.00238' to
+sigle `ICCGER/DeReKo.WPD17/G11.00238'.
+
 =item B<--inline-tokens> <foundry>#[<file>]
 
 Define the foundry and file (without extension)
diff --git a/lib/KorAP/XML/TEI/Header.pm b/lib/KorAP/XML/TEI/Header.pm
index 918e4f9..a075ecc 100644
--- a/lib/KorAP/XML/TEI/Header.pm
+++ b/lib/KorAP/XML/TEI/Header.pm
@@ -11,14 +11,12 @@
 # Warning:
 # Opening and closing tags (without attributes) have to be in one line
 
-# TODO: IDS-specific (and redundant)
-my $_HEADER_TAG = 'idsHeader';
-
 use constant {
   TEXT      => 0,
   HEADTYPE  => 1,
   SIGLE     => 2,
-  INPUTENC  => 3
+  INPUTENC  => 3,
+  HEADTAG   => 4
 };
 
 
@@ -33,12 +31,22 @@
 
 # Create new header object
 sub new {
-  my ($class, $text, $input_enc) = @_;
+  my ($class, $text, $input_enc, $text_id_esc) = @_;
 
-  my $self = bless [$text, undef, '', $input_enc // 'UTF-8'], $class;
+  my $self = bless [$text, undef, '', $input_enc // 'UTF-8', 'idsHeader'], $class;
+
+  if ($text_id_esc) {
+    $self->[SIGLE] = $text_id_esc;
+  };
+
+  # Expect teiHeader
+  if ($text =~ m!<teiHeader\b!) {
+    $self->[HEADTYPE] = 'text';
+    $self->[HEADTAG]  = 'teiHeader';
+  }
 
   # Check header types to distinguish between siglen types
-  if ($text =~ m!^<${_HEADER_TAG}\s+[^<]*type="([^"]+)"!) {
+  elsif ($text =~ m!^<idsHeader\s+[^>]*?type="([^"]+)"!) {
     $self->[HEADTYPE] = $1;
 
     unless (exists $sig{$1}) {
@@ -63,7 +71,7 @@
   my $sig_type = $sig{$self->[HEADTYPE]} // 'textSigle';
 
   my $pos;
-  my $l = length('</' . $_HEADER_TAG) + 1;
+  my $l = length('</' . $self->[HEADTAG]) + 1;
 
   # Iterate over file handle
   while (<$fh>) {
@@ -75,12 +83,12 @@
     #   This version keeps comments in header files
 
     # End of header found - finish parsing
-    if (($pos = index($_, '</' . $_HEADER_TAG)) >= 0) {
+    if (($pos = index($_, '</' . $self->[HEADTAG])) >= 0) {
 
       # Add to text
       $self->[TEXT] .= substr($_, 0, $l + $pos);
 
-      die $log->fatal("Line with tag '</${_HEADER_TAG}>' (L$.) contains additional information")
+      die $log->fatal(q!Line with tag '</! . $self->[HEADTAG] . q!>' (L$.) contains additional information!)
         if substr($_, $l + $pos) !~ /^\s*$/;
 
       if ($self->dir eq '') {
diff --git a/script/tei2korapxml b/script/tei2korapxml
index 5c74b91..deee2cc 100755
--- a/script/tei2korapxml
+++ b/script/tei2korapxml
@@ -58,6 +58,7 @@
   'data-file=s'           => \(my $data_file   = 'data'),
   'header-file=s'         => \(my $header_file = 'header'),
   'tokens-file=s'         => \(my $tokens_file = 'tokens'),
+  'xmlid-to-textsigle|x=s'=> \(my $xmlid_to_textsigle = ''),
   'log|l=s'               => \(my $log_level   = 'notice'),
   'required-version|rv=s' => \(my $required_version),
   ''                      => \(my $stdio),
@@ -94,13 +95,16 @@
 };
 
 
+my ($what, $with);
+if ($xmlid_to_textsigle ne '') {
+  ($what, $with) = split('@', $xmlid_to_textsigle);
+  $what = qr!$what!;
+};
+
 # tag (without attributes), which contains the primary text
 my $_TEXT_BODY = 'text';
 # optional
 
-# TODO: IDS-specific (and redundant)
-my $_HEADER_TAG = 'idsHeader';
-
 # Remember to skip certain inline tags
 my %skip_inline_tags = ();
 if ($skip_inline_tags_str) {
@@ -372,9 +376,41 @@
     };
   }
 
-  # Start of header section
-  elsif (m#^(.*)(\<${_HEADER_TAG}[^>]*?type=["'].*)$#) {
+  elsif (m#^(.*)\<TEI\s+[^>]*?xml:id=(["'])(.+?)\2#) {
+    my $leadin = $1;
+    my $id = $3;
+    my $sigle = $3;
 
+    if ($what) {
+      $_ = $id;
+      eval "s|$what|$with|";  # s@ICC.German\.([^.]+\.[^.]+)\.(.+)@ICCGER/$1/$2@;
+      $sigle = $_;
+      $log->debug("Converted text id `$id' to sigle `$sigle'");
+    };
+    $sigle =~ s/\./-/g;
+
+    my @parts = split(/[\/_]/, $sigle);
+    if (@parts != 3) {
+      die $log->fatal(
+          "input line number $.: " .
+              "ids must have exactly three parts split by '/', but `$id` only has " . scalar(@parts) . " ".
+              "=> Aborting (line=$_)");
+    };
+
+    $dir = join("/", @parts);
+    $text_id_esc = "$parts[0]/$parts[1].$parts[2]";
+    $log->notice("$0: text_id=$text_id_esc");
+
+    if ($leadin !~ /^\s*$/) {
+      die $log->fatal(
+          "input line number $.: " .
+              'line with opening header tag is not in expected format ... ' .
+              "=> Aborting (line=$_)");
+    };
+  }
+
+  # Start of header section
+  elsif (m#^(.*)(\<(?:ids|tei)Header.*)$#) {
     my $content = "$2\n";
 
     if ($1 !~ /^\s*$/) {
@@ -385,7 +421,7 @@
     };
 
     # Parse header
-    my $header = KorAP::XML::TEI::Header->new($content, $input_enc)->parse($input_fh);
+    my $header = KorAP::XML::TEI::Header->new($content, $input_enc, $text_id_esc)->parse($input_fh);
 
     # Header was parseable
     if ($header) {
@@ -583,6 +619,21 @@
 Expects a comma-separated list of tags to be ignored when the structure
 is parsed. Content of these tags however will be processed.
 
+=item B<--xmlid-to-textsigle> <from-regex>@<to-c/to-d/to-t>
+
+Expects a regular replacement expression (separated by a B<@> between the
+search and the replacement) to convert text id attributes to text sigles
+with three parts (separated by B</>).
+
+Example:
+
+  tei2korapxml  \
+    --xmlid-to-textsigle 'ICC.German\.([^.]+\.[^.]+)\.(.+)@ICCGER/$1/$2' \
+    -tk - < t/data/icc_german_sample.p5.xml
+
+Converts text id `ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.G11.00238' to
+sigle `ICCGER/DeReKo.WPD17/G11.00238'.
+
 =item B<--inline-tokens> <foundry>#[<file>]
 
 Define the foundry and file (without extension)
diff --git a/t/data/icc_german_sample.p5.xml b/t/data/icc_german_sample.p5.xml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2caf882
--- /dev/null
+++ b/t/data/icc_german_sample.p5.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,12111 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<teiCorpus xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" version="3.3.0">
+   <teiHeader>
+      <fileDesc>
+         <titleStmt>
+            <title>International Comparable Corpus - German Part - Written Part - Learned (non-final)</title>
+         </titleStmt>
+         <publicationStmt>
+            <p>Compiled by IDS, December 2022</p>
+         </publicationStmt>
+         <sourceDesc>
+            <p>DeReKo and various additional sources</p>
+         </sourceDesc>
+      </fileDesc>
+   </teiHeader>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.G11.00238">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/G11.00238 Gentechnisch veränderter
+                     Organismus, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentechnisch_veränderter_Organismus:
+                     Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>2A02:1205:5009:C1F0:5848:B189:CE93:EFEF, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Gentechnisch veränderter Organismus</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>[[Datei:GloFish.jpg|miniatur|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/GloFish">GloFish</ref>,
+                     ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrab%C3%A4rbling">Zebrabärbling</ref>: das erste gentechnisch veränderte Tier,
+                     das als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haustier">Haustier</ref> in den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vereinigte_Staaten">USA</ref> seit 2015 verkauft wird.]] </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:GFP Mice 01.jpg|miniatur|Links und rechts je eine transgene
+                        Maus mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%BCn_fluoreszierendes_Protein">grün fluoreszierendem Protein</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die GFP-Färbung ist besonders an den Augen, der Schnauze und am
+                        Schwanz gut zu erkennen.</s>
+                  <s>In der Mitte eine Maus ohne GFP.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;I. Moen, C.
+                        Jevne, J. Wang, K. H. Kalland, M. Chekenya, L. A. Akslen, L. Sleire, P. O.
+                        Enger, R. K. Reed, A. M. Oyan, L. E. Stuhr: <hi rend="it">Gene expression in
+                           tumor cells and stroma in dsRed 4T1 tumors in eGFP-expressing mice with
+                           and without enhanced oxygenation.</hi> In: <hi rend="it">BMC cancer.</hi>
+                        Band 12, 2012, S.&amp;amp;nbsp;21, <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>.</s>
+                  <s>PMID 22251838. <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]] [[Datei:Muscle Mouse
+                        01.jpg|miniatur|upright|„Gendoping“ im Labor:<lb/>Bei der rechten Maus wurde das für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myostatin">Myostatin</ref> codierende <hi rend="it">Mstn</hi>-Gen abgeschaltet.</s>
+                  <s>Myostatin hemmt das Muskelwachstum.</s>
+                  <s>Durch das fehlende Myostatin ist die Muskelmasse der transgenen
+                        rechten Maus um den Faktor vier höher als bei dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildtyp">Wildtyp</ref> (links)]] </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="bo">Gentechnisch veränderte Organismen</hi> (<hi rend="bo">GVO</hi>), auch <hi rend="bo">gentechnisch modifizierte Organismen</hi>,
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> (<hi rend="bo">GMO</hi>), seltener <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>, sind <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismen">Organismen</ref>, deren <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbanlagen">Erbanlagen</ref> mittels <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentechnik">gentechnischer</ref> Methoden (z. B.</s>
+                  <s>durch <hi rend="it">Transgenetik</hi>) gezielt verändert worden
+                        sind.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Methoden unterscheiden sich von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreuzung_%28Genetik%29">Kreuzen</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation">Mutation</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekombination_%28Genetik%29">Rekombination</ref> und anderen Methoden herkömmlicher <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCchtung">Züchtung</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.G11.00238-f1" rend="ref"/> Der Begriff „gentechnisch
+                        veränderter Organismus“ wird in Deutschland durch das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentechnikgesetz_%28Deutschland%29">Gentechnikgesetz</ref> (GenTG) definiert.<ptr target="WPD17.G11.00238-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Zur Genmodifikation zählen die gezielte Abschaltung
+                        einzelner Gene sowie das gezielte Einbringen arteigener oder artfremder
+                        Gene.</s>
+                  <s>GVOs, in die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen">Gene</ref> aus anderen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_%28Biologie%29">Arten</ref> eingeschleust wurden, werden auch als <hi rend="bo">transgene Organismen</hi> bezeichnet, die eingeschleusten Gene als <hi rend="bo">Transgene</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>So werden beispielsweise Gene zwischen verschiedenen Arten
+                        übertragen, um Tieren oder Pflanzen bestimmte Eigenschaften zu vermitteln,
+                        die mit herkömmlicher Züchtung nicht oder schwerer zu erreichen wären.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der Entwicklung von GVO und gentechnischen
+                        Arbeiten mit ihnen müssen Sicherheitsmaßnahmen beachtet werden, die in
+                        Deutschland durch das Gentechnikgesetz festgelegt und durch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentechnik-Sicherheitsverordnung">Gentechnik-Sicherheitsverordnung</ref> näher ausgeführt
+                        sind.</s>
+                  <s>So erfolgt das Arbeiten unter einer bestimmten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologische_Sicherheitsstufe">Sicherheitsstufe</ref> (S1 bis S4).</s>
+                  <s>Dies betrifft den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor">Labor</ref>- oder Produktionsbereich (beispielsweise in der
+                        Biotechnologie), aber auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gew%C3%A4chshaus">Gewächshäuser</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierhaltung">Tierhaltungsr</ref>äume.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Begriffe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%BCne_Gentechnik">grüne</ref> (an Pflanzen), <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rote_Biotechnologie">rote</ref> (an Mensch und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirbeltier">Wirbeltieren</ref>) und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrielle_Biotechnologie">weiße</ref> (an <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroorganismus">Mikroorganismen</ref>) Gentechnik werden verwendet, um die jeweiligen
+                        Bereiche anschaulich bezeichnen zu können.</s>
+                  <s>Daneben gibt es aber weitere Gebiete, wie beispielsweise die
+                        gentechnische Veränderung von Insekten.</s>
+                  <s>In der Medizin werden rechtlich nur nicht-menschliche Organismen
+                        als GVOs angesehen.</s>
+                  <s>Ansonsten müssten Patienten, die sich beispielsweise einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentherapie">Gentherapie</ref> unterzogen haben, als entsprechende Organismen
+                        behandelt werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Pflanzen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Transgene Nutzpflanzen haben seit ihrer
+                           Erstzulassung im Jahr 1996 weltweit rapide an Bedeutung gewonnen und
+                           wurden 2009 in 25 Ländern auf 134 Millionen Hektar (ca. 9 % der globalen
+                           Landwirtschaftsfläche) angebaut.</s>
+                     <s>Dabei handelt es sich insbesondere um Pflanzen, die aufgrund von
+                           gentechnischen Veränderungen tolerant gegenüber <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzenschutzmittel">Pflanzenschutzmitteln</ref> oder giftig für bestimmte
+                           Schadinsekten sind.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Gentechnisch veränderte Zierpflanzen wie die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaue_Rose">blaue
+                              Rose</ref> haben einen geringen Marktanteil.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Tiere </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Transgene Tiere wurden zunächst für
+                           Forschungsarbeiten hergestellt, um die Funktion von Genen zu
+                           untersuchen.</s>
+                     <s>Hierbei wurden verschiedene <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierarten">Tierarten</ref> eingesetzt, die sich für die Analyse biologischer
+                           Prozesse besonders eignen.</s>
+                     <s>So werden zum Beispiel niedere Organismen wie die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgener_S%C3%BC%C3%9Fwasserpolyp">Hydra</ref> als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modellorganismus">Modellorganismus</ref> eingesetzt, da viele der Gene, die auch im
+                           menschlichen Körper für die Entwicklung und auch zur Abwehr von
+                           Krankheiten wichtig sind, bei diesem Organismus vorkommen.</s>
+                     <s>Transgene Hydren erlauben daher Funktionsuntersuchungen, die in
+                           komplizierten Organismen und auch beim Menschen nicht so leicht möglich
+                           sind.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Besonders attraktiv ist die Fruchtfliege <hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</ref>
+                        </hi> bei der durch klassische genetische Untersuchungen die Regulation
+                           der Gene sehr weitgehend erforscht ist.</s>
+                     <s>Um die Funktionsweise bestimmter Gene zu erfassen, werden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vektor_%28Gentechnologie%29">Vektoren</ref>, die das gewünschte Fremdgen enthalten,
+                           in befruchtete <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eizelle">Eizellen</ref> eingebracht.</s>
+                     <s>Die erhaltenen Nachkommen sind mit einer gewissen
+                           Wahrscheinlichkeit transfiziert und werden nach dem Fremdgen (Transgen)
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening"/>.</s>
+                     <s>Bezüglich des Fremdgens positive Nachkommen werden etabliert und
+                           der Einfluss des Fremdgens analysiert.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Als höhere Lebewesen zur Analyse von Genfunktionen
+                           haben sich insbesondere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labormaus">Labormäuse</ref> etabliert, bei denen nicht nur durch das Einbringen
+                           von Fremdgenen wichtige Erkenntnisse erhalten werden können, sondern
+                           ebenso durch Ausschalten von Genen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen-Knockout">Gen-Knockout</ref>).</s>
+                     <s>Mit neueren Techniken ist es auch möglich Gene in präzis
+                           vorausbestimmbare <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genlocus">Genorte</ref> einzubringen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knock-in">Knock-in</ref>) oder die Aktivität bestimmter Gene gezielt zu
+                           drosseln (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knock-down">Knock-down</ref>).</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Basierend auf diesen Grundlagenforschungen wurden
+                           in der Folge auch Genveränderungen an Nutztieren vorgenommen, um deren
+                           Eigenschaften für eine bessere Nutzung zu erhöhen.</s>
+                     <s>Ein weiteres Anwendungsfeld ist die genetische Veränderung von
+                           Insekten, um sie ohne Insektizide zu bekämpfen.</s>
+                     <s>Vergleiche hierzu <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentechnisch_ver%C3%A4nderte_Tiere">Gentechnisch veränderte Tiere</ref>.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Mikroorganismen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Seit 1999 wird ein sogenanntes Humaninsulin, das
+                           mit gentechnisch veränderten Bakterien hergestellt wird (siehe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulinpr%C3%A4parat">Insulinpräparat</ref>), zur Behandlung bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus">Diabetes</ref> eingesetzt.</s>
+                     <s>Es wird an transgenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milchs%C3%A4urebakterien">Milchsäurebakterien</ref> geforscht, die beispielsweise
+                           die Herstellung von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4se">Käse</ref> beschleunigen können.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym">Enzyme</ref> aus Pflanzen oder Tieren könnten durch genetische
+                           Modifikation auch von Mikroorganismen produziert werden.</s>
+                     <s>Ein weiterer Forschungsbereich sind transgene <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hefen">Hefen</ref>, die beispielsweise in der Produktion eines kalorienärmeren
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bier">Biers</ref> eingesetzt werden können.<ptr target="WPD17.G11.00238-f3" rend="ref"/> 2012 gelang es an der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_M%C3%BCnchen">TUM</ref>, gentechnisch veränderte Hefen zu erzeugen,
+                           die unter anderem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koffein">Koffein</ref> und den Süßstoff <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaumatin">Thaumatin</ref> produzieren.</s>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.G11.00238-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.D18.77690">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/D18.77690 Drehmelder, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drehmelder: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>TaxonBot, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Drehmelder</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Stator eines Drehmelders ist meist ein zylinderförmiger
+                              Körper, der den Rotor umschließt.</s>
+                  <s>Er enthält ebenfalls ein Blechpaket als Kern, auf welchen
+                              mindestens eine, jedoch meist drei in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreieckschaltung">Dreieckschaltung</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sternschaltung">Sternschaltung</ref> verknüpfte Spulen gewickelt sind.</s>
+                  <s>Eine isolierte Halterung für die Schleifkontakte überträgt
+                              die Spannungen auf den Rotor.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Wicklungen auf dem Stator können in mehrere
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polpaarzahl">Polpaare</ref> geteilt sein.</s>
+                  <s>Das entspricht einer elektrischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getriebe%23Getriebe_mit_gleichm%25C3%25A4%25C3%259Figer_%25C3%259Cbersetzung_%28f%25C3%25BCr_Drehbewegung%29">Übersetzung der Drehzahl</ref> dieses
+                              Drehmelders.</s>
+                  <s>Gleichzeitig entstehen dadurch mehrere Nullstellen, die bei
+                              Bedarf durch Überlagerung in einem Mehrkanal-Drehmeldesystem (siehe
+                              weiter unten) auf eine eindeutige Nullstelle reduziert werden
+                              müssen.</s>
+                  <s>Für eine hochgenaue Bestimmung einer Winkelposition wären
+                              jedoch 18 bis 36, im Einzelfall 648<ptr target="WPD17.D18.77690-f11" rend="ref"/> Polpaare nötig.</s>
+                  <s>Diese hohe Anzahl von Wicklungen sind auf dem begrenzt zur
+                              Verfügung stehenden Raum nicht realisierbar, weshalb diese
+                              Mehrkanal-Drehmeldesysteme meist ein Präzisionsgetriebe verwenden.</s>
+                  <s>Drehmelder mit einer Vervielfachung von Polpaaren werden
+                              deshalb nur dort angewendet, wo entweder der Stator sehr große
+                              geometrische Maße erhalten kann oder wo nur eine geringe Zahl von
+                              Polpaaren ausreichend ist (zum Beispiel für ausschließliche
+                              Drehgeschwindigkeitsübertragung).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Funktionsweise </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADrehmelderspannungen.png">mini|hochkant=1.8|Drehmeldespannungen als Funktion der
+                              Verdrehung des Rotors eines Drehmeldegebers:An den Statorspulen wird
+                              eine Wechselspannung gemessen mit einem für diese Position
+                              (Winkelstellung des Rotors) spezifischen Effektivwert.</ref>
+                  </s>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADrehmelderspannungen.png">
+                     <s>(Die stärker gezeichnete Hüllkurve ist zu den darin
+                              eingeschlossenen Wechselspannungen nicht synchron!)</s>
+                  </ref>
+                  <s> Die Rotorwicklung bildet mit den Statorwicklungen
+                           je einen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformator">Transformator</ref>, dessen Übersetzungsverhältnis von
+                           der Winkelstellung des Rotors zu der Statorwicklung abhängig ist.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Spule wird mit einer Wechselspannung gespeist, die hier <hi rend="it">Stützspannung</hi> genannt wird.</s>
+                  <s>Der Effektivwert der verwendeten Stützspannung liegt im Bereich
+                           von wenigen zehn bis zu 115 Volt, typischerweise mit der vorhandenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netzfrequenz">Netzfrequenz</ref> von 50 Hz oder 400 Hz.</s>
+                  <s>Eine höhere Frequenz dieser Stützspannung (bis zu 12 kHz)
+                           bewirkt eine sehr viel kleinere Bauform der Drehmelder, so dass Blöcke
+                           mit sehr vielen Drehmeldern und ihrem mechanischen Verbund über Zahnräder
+                           und Stellräder nicht mehr so eine große klobige Einheit bildeten.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In den anderen, nicht primär gespeisten Spulen des
+                           Drehmelders wird eine vom Winkel zu dieser gespeisten Spule abhängige
+                           Sekundärspannung induziert.</s>
+                  <s>Meist sind diese an dem Stator angebracht.</s>
+                  <s>Die Spannungsverläufe an den Statorwicklungen sind nahezu in
+                           Phase mit der Erregerspannung der Rotorwicklung und unterscheiden sich in
+                           der Amplitude, die vom Sinus des Winkels zwischen Rotor und
+                           Statorwicklung abhängt: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Darin ist <hi rend="it">K</hi> das maximale
+                           Übertragungsverhältnis zwischen Rotor und Stator; <hi rend="it">ϑ</hi> der Verstimmungswinkel; <hi rend="it">U</hi>
+                     <hi rend="sub">L</hi> die Spannung am Ausgang der jeweiligen Wicklung
+                              (S<hi rend="sub">1</hi> … S<hi rend="sub">3</hi>); <hi rend="it">U</hi>
+                     <hi rend="sub">R</hi> ist die (hier am Rotor eingespeiste)
+                           Stützspannung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Fast jeder Drehmelder kann sowohl als
+                           Drehmeldegeber als auch als Drehmeldeempfänger eingesetzt werden.</s>
+                  <s>In der Praxis werden jedoch für den Einsatz als Drehmeldegeber
+                           spezielle Geräte konstruiert, die zum Beispiel einen höheren Strom auf
+                           den Leitungen bereitstellen um mehrere, an verschiedenen Orten
+                           installierte Drehmeldeempfänger betreiben zu können.</s>
+                  <s>An den Drehmeldeempfänger werden oft höhere Anforderungen an die
+                           Genauigkeit gestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Bei einer Stützspannung von 110 V bei 50 Hz liegt die maximale
+                           Sekundärspannung bei etwa 50 V.</s>
+                  <s>Die Speiseleistung eines Drehmeldegebers ist abhängig von der
+                           Anzahl der anschließbaren Drehmeldeempfänger und liegt typischerweise
+                           zwischen 2 Watt und 20 Watt.<ptr target="WPD17.D18.77690-f12" rend="ref"/> Die Genauigkeit der Winkelübertragung
+                           kann bis hinab in den Bereich weniger Winkelsekunden reichen.<ptr target="WPD17.D18.77690-f13" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der Nullstellung eines Drehmeldegebers muss ein
+                           Spannungsminimum zwischen den Wicklungen S<hi rend="sub">1</hi> und S<hi rend="sub">2</hi> zu messen sein.</s>
+                  <s>Das ist der Fall, wenn das Statorfeld der Wicklung S<hi rend="sub">3</hi> parallel zur Rotorwicklung liegt.</s>
+                  <s>Im nachgedrehten Zustand des Drehmeldegebers ist die im Rotor
+                           induzierte Fehlerspannung <hi rend="it">U<hi rend="sub">f</hi>
+                     </hi> minimal, wenn die Rotorrichtung quer zum resultierenden Statorfeld
+                           steht, also eine sehr lose Kopplung zwischen beiden Wicklungen
+                           besteht.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Um den Wartungsaufwand zu verringern werden
+                           sogenannte bürstenlose Drehmelder hergestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Diese können mittels eines Transformators die Stützspannung auf
+                           den Rotor übertragen.</s>
+                  <s>Eine weitere Möglichkeit besteht darin, dass die Übertragung der
+                           Stützspannung durch fest angeschlossene und in geringem Maße bewegliche
+                           Kabel erfolgt.</s>
+                  <s>Solche Anwendung ist für die Winkelübertragung einer
+                           periodischen Schwenkbewegung sinnvoll.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Drehung von mehr als 360° muss hier mechanisch verhindert
+                           werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein entscheidender Nachteil von Drehmeldesystemen
+                           ist, dass deren Funktion auf Stromfluss basiert und dass sie mit
+                           mindestens fünf strombelastbaren Leitungen keine großen Entfernungen
+                           überbrücken können.</s>
+                  <s>In der Praxis wurden hier meist nur Entfernungen im Bereich
+                           500 m bis 1000 m erreicht.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADrehrichtung.png">mini|hochkant=1.8|Scheinbare Drehrichtungsänderung durch
+                              Änderung der Betrachtungsrichtung</ref> Der Drehsinn eines Drehmelders
+                           wird beim Blick auf die Seite der Anschlussklemmen bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Liegen die Rotorachsen von Drehmeldegeber und Drehmeldeempfänger
+                           auf einer Linie und die Anschlüsse sind gleich beschaltet, ist die
+                           Drehrichtung in diesem System gleich: jedoch die unterschiedliche
+                           Blickrichtung zu den Anschlussklemmen ergibt eine scheinbare
+                           Drehrichtungsänderung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein Drehmelder kann aus mechanischen Gründen an
+                           einem rechtsdrehenden System linksdrehend montiert sein.</s>
+                  <s>Die Drehrichtung wird in diesem Fall elektrisch geändert.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Vertauschung von zwei Anschlüssen der Statorwicklungen an
+                           beliebiger Stelle des Systems kehrt die Drehrichtung des
+                           Drehmeldeempfängers um.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Drehmeldesysteme </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Es gibt zwei wesentliche Anwendungsmöglichkeiten für Drehmelder:
+                           den <hi rend="it">Fernanzeigebetrieb</hi> oder <hi rend="it">Indikatorbetrieb</hi> für ein nur geringe Kräfte übertragendes
+                           System, das nur eine Anzeigefunktion hat; und den <hi rend="it">Transformatorbetrieb</hi> bei welchem größere Lasten wie
+                           tonnenschwere Antennen, Schiffsruder oder komplette Waffensysteme bewegt
+                           werden können.</s>
+                  <s>Im Indikatorbetrieb wird die Einstellung eines Referenzwinkels
+                           unkompliziert auf mechanischem Wege durch Verdrehen des Zeigers auf der
+                           Rotorachse vorgenommen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Rotoren von Drehmeldegeber und Drehmeldeempfänger zeigen
+                           etwa auf den gleichen Winkel zum jeweiligen Stator.</s>
+                  <s>In Anwendungen des Transformatorbetriebs wird der Rotor des
+                           Drehmeldeempfängers gegenüber dem Rotor des Drehmeldegebers meist um 90°
+                           verdreht.</s>
+                  <s>Hier wird am Rotor des Drehmeldeempfängers statt eine
+                           Stützspannung anzulegen, eine Fehlerspannung <hi rend="it">U</hi>
+                     <hi rend="sub">f</hi> abgegriffen, elektronisch weiterverarbeitet und in
+                           einem elektromechanischen Regelkreis für die Nachführung auf den
+                           Sollwinkel genutzt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Einkanal-Drehmeldesysteme </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADrehmelderprinzip.png">mini|hochkant=1.8|Drehmeldesystem aus zwei gleichen
+                                 Drehmeldern mit einer Rotorwicklung und drei um 120° räumlich
+                                 versetzten Statorwicklungen.</ref>
+                  </s>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADrehmelderprinzip.png">
+                     <s>Der Drehmeldeempfänger (hinten) ist nur elektrisch mit dem
+                                 Drehmeldegeber verbunden, seine Rotorwicklung folgt dem Rotor des
+                                 Drehmeldegebers.</s>
+                  </ref>
+                  <s> Einkanal-Drehmeldesysteme nutzen nur einen
+                              einzelnen Drehmeldegeber und können einen oder mehrere, an
+                              verschiedenen Orten befindliche Drehmeldeempfänger steuern.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der Nutzung mehrerer Drehmeldeempfänger muss der
+                              Drehmeldegeber auf den Signalleitungen den Strom für diese Anzahl
+                              Empfänger bereitstellen können.</s>
+                  <s>Der Drehmeldegeber ist deswegen meist größer aufgebaut als
+                              die Empfänger.</s>
+                  <s>Die Genauigkeit von Einkanal-Drehmeldesystemen liegt im
+                              Bereich von etwa einem Grad.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Fernanzeigebetrieb </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Statorwicklungen und die des Rotors sind mit den
+                                 entsprechenden Wicklungen auf der Gegenseite parallelgeschaltet,
+                                 wofür fünf Adern nötig sind.</s>
+                  <s>Stimmen die Drehwinkel von Geber und Empfänger überein, so
+                                 werden in den einander entsprechenden Statorwicklungen gleiche
+                                 Spannungen induziert und es fließt kein Strom.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In dem Fall, in dem die Drehwinkel an beiden
+                                 Rotoren nicht gleich sind, sind die induzierten Spannungen in den
+                                 Wicklungen nicht gleich und es fließt ein Ausgleichsstrom abhängig
+                                 von dem komplexen Widerstand des Stromkreises der Wicklung und der
+                                 Spannungsdifferenz.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Ströme erzeugen in den Wicklungen des
+                                 Drehmeldeempfängers magnetische Flüsse, die dem magnetischen Fluss
+                                 der Erregerwicklung des Stators entgegenwirken.</s>
+                  <s>Es entsteht dadurch ein synchronisiertes <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drehmoment">Drehmoment</ref> das den Rotor des Drehmeldeempfängers in die
+                                 Richtung und bis zu dem Zeitpunkt dreht, bis die Winkelstellung des
+                                 Drehmeldegebers und des Drehmeldeempfängers wieder gleich sind.</s>
+                  <s>Somit sind die induzierten Spannungen gleich und es kann
+                                 kein Ausgleichsstrom mehr fließen, es wird der richtige Winkel
+                                 angezeigt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der Drehung der Achse des Drehmeldegebers
+                                 mit einer konstanten Winkelgeschwindigkeit wird sich die Achse des
+                                 Drehmeldeempfängers mit derselben Geschwindigkeit drehen.</s>
+                  <s>Es entsteht jedoch ein Restfehler, da die mechanische
+                                 Belastung an dem Rotor des Drehmeldeempfängers der Drehung
+                                 entgegenwirkt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Diese einfache Form eines Drehmeldesystems
+                                 ist nur für geringe Lastmomente geeignet, zum Beispiel für
+                                 Instrumentenzeiger oder Messgeräteskalen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Justierung erfolgt mechanisch durch Verdrehen des
+                                 Anzeigeelements auf der Rotorachse des Drehmeldeempfängers.</s>
+                  <s>Eine elektrische Abstimmung ist nicht notwendig.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Transformatorbetrieb mit Nachführung durch Servomotor
+                              </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADrehmeldegeber2.png">mini|hochkant=1.8|Einkanaliges Drehmeldesystem in
+                                    Transformatorbetrieb mit Servomotor</ref> Die begrenzte
+                                 Stellkraft der Indikatorschaltung kann mit einem Servomotor erhöht
+                                 werden.</s>
+                  <s>In einem solchen System wird der Drehmeldegeber ebenfalls
+                                 über den Rotor erregt, der Drehmeldeempfänger nur statorseitig mit
+                                 den Signalen des Drehmeldegebers.</s>
+                  <s>Das Magnetfeld im Drehmeldeempfänger ist gleich
+                                 ausgerichtet wie im Drehmeldegeber.</s>
+                  <s>Am Rotor des Drehmeldeempfängers ergibt sich eine
+                                 Sinusspannung mit der Frequenz der Erregung und einer sinusförmig
+                                 von der Drehwinkeldifferenz abhängigen Amplitude.</s>
+                  <s>Der Arbeitspunkt liegt bei einem der Nulldurchgänge der
+                                 Amplitude und ist um 90° verdreht.</s>
+                  <s>Die verstärkte Fehlerspannung wird einem Servomotor
+                                 zugeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Systeme, die sehr große Antennen mit einem Gewicht im
+                                 Bereich mehrerer Tonnen bewegen mussten, verwendeten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektromotorischer_Verst%C3%A4rker">elektromotorische Verstärker</ref>: ein starker
+                                 asynchroner Elektromotor trieb einen Generator an, dessen
+                                 Erregerwicklung mit der Fehlerspannung gespeist wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Als Last wurden an diesem Generator die Antriebsmotoren
+                                 der Antenne betrieben, die diese kräftig in den Winkel drehten, in
+                                 welchem die Fehlerspannung einen Minimalwert hat.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der Praxis sind Drehmeldesysteme im
+                                 Transformatorbetrieb einfacher aufzubauen, wenn bei einem
+                                 Fehlerwinkel gleich Null die Ausgangsspannung statt einem Maximum
+                                 zu folgen, ebenfalls gleich Null ist.</s>
+                  <s>Deshalb wird die Nulllage des Drehmeldeempfängers (im
+                                 Gegensatz zum Indikatorprinzip) derart definiert, dass die
+                                 Wicklungen des Stators des Drehmeldeempfängers zu den Wicklungen
+                                 des Stators des Drehmeldeempfängers um 90° versetzt sein
+                                 müssen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Transformatorbetrieb ohne Nachführung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein solches Drehmeldesystem kann als Transformator oder
+                                 Umformer genutzt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Wird der Rotor des Drehmeldeempfängers nicht dem
+                                 Drehmeldegeber nachgeführt, so ist der Effektivwert seiner
+                                 Ausgangsspannung proportional dem Sinus der Winkeldifferenz
+                                 zwischen beiden Rotoren.</s>
+                  <s>Das wird in rundumsuchenden Radargeräten genutzt, um eine
+                                 Korrekturspannung für eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windkompensation_%28MTI%29">Windkompensation</ref> bei der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_Target_Indication">Festzielunterdrückung</ref> zu erhalten.</s>
+                  <s>Diese verstimmt minimal den Kohärentoszillator eines <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koh%C3%A4rentes_Radar">pseudokohärenten Radars</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Statt der Festziele werden jetzt alle Ziele unterdrückt,
+                                 die sich mit dieser radialen Komponente der Windgeschwindigkeit
+                                 bewegen: zum Beispiel die Echosignale starker Wolkenfelder, von
+                                 Störechos durch Seegang oder gar durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCppel_%28Radart%C3%A4uschung%29">Düppelstörungen</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.D18.77690-f14" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Anwendung zur Winkelgeschwindigkeitsübertragung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Indikatorprinzip ist die Übertragung sehr kleiner
+                                 Winkeldifferenzen geprägt von nur sehr kleinen Ausgleichsströmen
+                                 mit der Folge, dass deren Anzeige in diesem Bereich recht ungenau
+                                 wird.</s>
+                  <s>Wird das Drehmeldeprinzip für die Übertragung einer
+                                    Winkel<hi rend="it">geschwindigkeit</hi> genutzt (als
+                                 „elektrische <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welle_%28Mechanik%29%23Biegsame_Welle">Tachowelle</ref>“), so kann durch
+                                 Vergrößerung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polpaarzahl">Polpaarzahl</ref> die Festigkeit der Übertragung verbessert
+                                 werden, da im Verhältnis zur Polpaaranzahl die Ausgleichsströme bei
+                                 kleinen Winkeldifferenzen sich vervielfachen.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings entstehen in diesem Fall entsprechend der
+                                 Anzahl der Polpaare mehrere Nullstellen (Mehrdeutigkeiten), die mit
+                                 der einkanaligen Übertragung nicht aufgelöst werden können.</s>
+                  <s>Eine maximal übertragbare Winkelgeschwindigkeit wird durch
+                                 die Frequenz der Stützspannung begrenzt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Zweikanal-Drehmeldesysteme </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Servoschaltung1.png|mini|hochkant=1.8|Prinzipschaltung eines
+                              Zweikanal-Folgesystems mit Drehmeldern, Beispiel aus dem Russischen
+                              Radar <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-37">P-37</ref>]] Mit einem Zweikanaldrehmeldesystem <hi rend="it">(Grobkanal und Feinkanal)</hi> kann die Genauigkeit des
+                              Folgesystems wesentlich verbessert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Es werden zwei Kanäle von Drehmeldesystemen über ein
+                              hochpräzises Getriebe mit der Übersetzung 1:25 oder 1:36
+                              gekoppelt.</s>
+                  <s>Der Grobkanal spricht bei großen Winkeldifferenzen an, der
+                              Feinkanal arbeitet im Bereich kleiner Winkeldifferenzen.</s>
+                  <s>Im Normalfall arbeitet das Folgesystem nur mit dem Feinkanal
+                              und erzielt damit eine größere Genauigkeit.</s>
+                  <s>In diesem Getriebe wird zum Beispiel die Genauigkeit dadurch
+                              erhöht, dass ein eventuelles Spiel zwischen den Zahnrädern durch
+                              Einsatz von zwei gleichen Zahnrädern verhindert wird.</s>
+                  <s>Von denen ist eines fest mit der Welle verbunden, das zweite
+                              liegt jedoch lose neben dem festen Zahnrad an.</s>
+                  <s>Beide Zahnräder werden mittels einer starken Feder
+                              gegeneinander gespreizt, liegen kraftschlüssig links und rechts am
+                              gegenüberliegenden Zahn an und verhindern so ein Spiel zwischen den
+                              Zahnrädern des Getriebes.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Gute Drehmelder konnten pro Kanal eine
+                              Genauigkeit von bis zu 0,25° für den Drehmeldegeber und 0,75° für den
+                              Drehmeldeempfänger erreichen.</s>
+                  <s>Durch Ungenauigkeiten im Getriebe konnte diese nicht einfach
+                              durch das Übersetzungsverhältnis verbessert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Jedoch hat zum Beispiel das Zweikanaldrehmeldesystem des
+                              Radargerätes <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-37">P-37</ref> bei guter Abstimmung insgesamt eine
+                              Genauigkeit von weniger als 6 Winkelminuten bereitgestellt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Stellmotor erhält entweder die Summe beider
+                              Fehlerspannungen der Kanäle, oder es wird der Grobkanal erst bei einer
+                              Überschreitung eines Schwellwertes (zum Beispiel wenn der Winkelfehler
+                              größer als 3° ist) zugeschaltet.</s>
+                  <s>Bei einer nichteindeutigen Stellung wird diese Nullstelle des
+                              Feinkanals durch den Grobkanal überdeckt und das System führt über den
+                              Grobkanal zur richtigen Nullstelle des Feinkanals.</s>
+                  <s>Bei einem geradzahligen Übersetzungsverhältnis (1:36)
+                              entsteht eine Scheinnull bei 180° mit einer labilen Nullstelle des
+                              Grobkanals (labil: eine Abweichung von Null führt zu einer von Null
+                              wegführenden Regelung) und einer stabilen Nullstelle des Feinkanals
+                              (stabil: eine Abweichung von Null führt zu einer Regelung in Richtung
+                              Null).</s>
+                  <s>Insgesamt könnte das System hier nur vom Feinkanal gesteuert
+                              auf der falschen Nullstelle arbeiten, wenn die Fehlerspannung über
+                              eine längere Zeit zu klein ist, um den Grobkanal einzuschalten.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Unterdrückung dieser Nullstelle wird zu der Spannung des
+                              Grobkanals eine konstante kleine Wechselspannung gleichphasig
+                              summiert.</s>
+                  <s>Hiermit kommt es zu einer Verschiebung dieser Nullstelle des
+                              Grobkanals, die jetzt nicht mehr mit einer stabilen Scheinnullstelle
+                              des Feinkanals übereinstimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Das Folgesystem kann sich somit nicht mehr auf diesen
+                              falschen Winkel einregeln.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Hochgenaue Systeme nutzen zusätzlich einen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachogenerator">Tachogenerator</ref> am Drehmeldeempfängerkreis, der die
+                              Drehgeschwindigkeit des nachfolgenden Systems misst, in eine der
+                              Drehgeschwindigkeit proportionalen Spannung umsetzt und mit dieser den
+                              Verstärkungsfaktor des Fehlerspannungsverstärkers des Folgesystems
+                              regelt.</s>
+                  <s>Mit einer solchen Schaltung wird ein mögliches Überschwingen
+                              des Systems verhindert und ein gleichmäßiges Nachziehen zum Sollwinkel
+                              bewirkt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Dreikanal-Drehmeldesysteme </s>
+               </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.D01.94938">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/D01.94938 Deep Impact (Sonde), In: Wikipedia
+                     - URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Impact_(Sonde): Wikipedia,
+                     2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>CorrectHorseBatteryStaple, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Deep Impact (Sonde)</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="bo">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi> (<gap reason="template" instant="false"/> für
+                        ‚heftiger Einschlag‘, aber auch ‚starker
+                        Eindruck‘) ist eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration">NASA</ref>-Mission des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery-Programm">Discovery-Programms</ref> zum <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komet">Kometen</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempel_1">Tempel
+                           1</ref>, der mit einer Periode von fünfeinhalb Jahren die Sonne umkreist
+                        und sich der Erde bis auf 133 Millionen Kilometer nähert.</s>
+                  <s>Ihren Namen teilte die Raumsonde mit dem etwa zur gleichen Zeit
+                        erschienenen Film <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Impact_%28Film%29">Deep Impact</ref>
+                     </hi>, der von einem Kometen, welcher mit der Erde zu kollidieren droht,
+                        handelt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Namensgleichheit soll jedoch zufällig entstanden sein.</s>
+                  <s>Die Mission ist ein Gemeinschaftsprojekt der <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>, des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory">JPL</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_Aerospace">Ball
+                           Aerospace</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die NASA investierte in die Mission sechs Jahre Arbeit und
+                        insgesamt 333 Millionen US-Dollar, davon 267 Millionen für die Sonde selbst,
+                        15 Millionen für die Durchführung der Primärmission (bis 3. August 2005) und
+                        etwa 50 Millionen für die Trägerrakete.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nach Abschluss der Primärmission wurde die Mission der
+                        noch weiterhin voll einsatzbereiten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorbeiflug_%28Raumfahrt%29">Vorbeiflug</ref>­sonde verlängert.</s>
+                  <s>Unter dem Missionsnamen <hi rend="bo">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPOXI">EPOXI</ref>
+                     </hi> verfolgte die Sonde bis zum letzten Kontakt am 8. August 2013 neue
+                        Ziele.</s>
+                  <s>Bei einem Vorbeiflug am 4. November 2010 wurden aus nur 700
+                        Kilometern Entfernung Bilder des Kometen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/103P%2FHartley">103P/Hartley</ref> gemacht, um diesen näher zu erforschen.</s>
+                  <s>Außerdem wurde das HRI-Teleskop dazu genutzt, nach erdähnlichen
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrasolarer_Planet">Exoplaneten</ref> zu suchen.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_impact_clean_room.jpg">mini| in der Endmontage</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Missionsziele </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das Hauptmissionsziel von Deep Impact war die Erforschung des
+                           Inneren des Kometen Tempel 1. Dazu wurde ein 372 kg schweres Projektil
+                           (Impaktor) in die Flugbahn des Kometen gebracht, das auf dem Kometen
+                           einschlug und dort einen Krater hinterließ.</s>
+                  <s>Anschließend wurde das herausgeschleuderte Material mit den
+                           Instrumenten der Sonde sowie mit weiteren Teleskopen auf der Erde und im
+                           Weltraum untersucht.</s>
+                  <s>Erstmals bestand so die Möglichkeit, den Blick auf das Innere
+                           eines Kometen freizugeben und das sich im Kometen befindliche Urmaterial
+                           des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnensystem">Sonnensystems</ref> freizusetzen.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses Material stammt noch aus der Zeit der Entstehung des
+                           Sonnensystems und bildet die Kerne von Kometen.</s>
+                  <s>Wissenschaftler hoffen, durch diese neue Sicht nicht nur die
+                           Kometen besser verstehen, sondern auch die Rolle der Kometen in der
+                           frühen Geschichte des Sonnensystems besser nachvollziehen zu können.</s>
+                  <s>Die Missionsziele im Einzelnen waren: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das Ziel der Mission war somit, Unterschiede
+                           zwischen den Eigenschaften des Inneren eines Kometenkerns und denen
+                           seiner Oberfläche zu erforschen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Technik </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_diagram.png">mini|Diagramm der Deep-Impact-Raumsonde</ref> Deep
+                           Impact bestand aus zwei Komponenten: der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorbeiflugsonde">Vorbeiflugsonde</ref> und dem Impaktor, der am 4. Juli 2005 auf dem
+                           Kometen aufschlug und dabei zerstört wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Die Vorbeiflugsonde diente dem Impaktor bis kurz vor dem
+                           Aufschlag als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitenbus">Bus</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die Gesamtmasse der beiden Komponenten betrug beim Start
+                              973 kg<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f1" rend="ref"/> (nach anderen Angaben 1020 kg).<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Vorbeiflugsonde </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Vorbeiflugsonde der Deep-Impact-Mission wurde von dem
+                              Unternehmen Ball Aerospace entwickelt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie ist etwa 3,2 m lang, 1,7 m breit sowie 2,3 m hoch und
+                              hatte beim Start eine Masse von 601 kg<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f1" rend="ref"/> (nach anderen Angaben
+                                 650 kg),<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f3" rend="ref"/> von denen 86 kg auf den Treibstoff entfielen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Sonde ist dreiachsen-stabilisiert und verfügt über ein
+                              fest angebrachtes, 2,8 m × 2,8 m messendes Solarpanel, welches
+                              abhängig vom Abstand zur Sonne bis zu 750 Watt Leistung liefern
+                              kann.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Energiespeicherung dient ein NiH<hi rend="sub">2</hi>-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkumulator">Akkumulator</ref> mit einer Speicherkapazität von
+                              16 Amperestunden.</s>
+                  <s>Die Struktur der Sonde besteht aus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium">Aluminium</ref>-Profilen und Aluminium in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwichplatte_mit_Wabenkern">Sandwich-Wabenkern-Bauweise</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Vorbeiflugsonde verfügt über zwei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundanz_%28Technik%29">redundante</ref> Computersysteme.</s>
+                  <s>Das Herz des Bordcomputers ist ein 133 MHz schneller, aus
+                              10,4 Millionen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor">Transistoren</ref> bestehender 32-bit-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD750">RAD750</ref>-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prozessor">Prozessor</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Der Prozessor ist im Grunde ein gegen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strahlung">Strahlung</ref> gehärteter <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_G3">PowerPC-750 G3</ref> und der Nachfolger des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_RAD6000">RAD6000</ref>-Prozessors, der beispielsweise in den Mars-Rovern
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_%28Raumsonde%29">Spirit</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity">Opportunity</ref> Verwendung findet.</s>
+                  <s>Der Einsatz in Deep Impact war der erste Einsatz eines
+                              RAD750-Prozessors.</s>
+                  <s>Beide Rechner der Sonde verfügen über einen gemeinsamen
+                              Speicher von 1024 MByte.</s>
+                  <s>309 MByte wissenschaftlicher Daten wurden während der
+                              Primärmission von der Raumsonde erwartet.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Kommunikation mit der Erde erfolgt im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequenzband%23Mikrowellenbereich">X-Band</ref> auf einer 8-GHz-Frequenz mit maximal
+                              175 kbit/s zur Erde und 125 bit/s zur Sonde.</s>
+                  <s>Mit dem Impaktor wurde im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequenzband%23Mikrowellenbereich">S-Band</ref> mit 64 kbit/s auf einer maximalen
+                              Entfernung von 8700 km kommuniziert.</s>
+                  <s>Die Sonde verfügt über eine bewegliche 1-m-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochgewinnantenne">Hochgewinnantenne</ref> (HGA) und zwei fest
+                              angebrachte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niedriggewinnantenne">Niedriggewinnantennen</ref> (LGA).</s>
+                  <s>Für Kurskorrekturen ist ein Antriebssystem, bestehend aus
+                              einer Gruppe von Triebwerken, vorhanden.</s>
+                  <s>Es verbrennt mit einem Gesamtschub von 5000 N <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazin">Hydrazin</ref> und vermag eine Gesamt-Geschwindigkeitsänderung
+                                 (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_v">Delta v</ref>) von 190 m/s zu erzeugen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Impaktor </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_-_impactor_assembly.jpg">mini|Impaktor in der Montagehalle</ref> Der Impaktor
+                              stammt ebenfalls von Ball Aerospace und war 1 m hoch, hatte einen
+                              Durchmesser von 1 m und wog 372 kg, wobei 8 kg auf den Treibstoff für
+                              Kurskorrekturen unmittelbar vor dem Aufprall entfielen.</s>
+                  <s>Der Impaktor bestand überwiegend aus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupfer">Kupfer</ref> (49 %) und Aluminium (24 %).</s>
+                  <s>Diese Mischung verringerte eine Verunreinigung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spektrallinie">Spektrallinien</ref> des Kometenkerns, die nach dem Aufprall
+                              aufgenommen wurden, da Vorkommen von Kupfer auf dem Kometen nicht zu
+                              erwarten waren.</s>
+                  <s>113 kg der Impaktor-Gesamtmasse waren „<gap reason="template" instant="false"/>“,
+                              bestimmt dazu, einen möglichst großen Krater zu erzeugen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Masse bestand aus mehreren Kupferplatten, die am
+                              vorderen Ende des Impaktors angebracht waren.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Platten bildeten eine sphärische Form.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Impaktor wurde 24 Stunden vor dem Aufschlag
+                              auf dem Kometen von der Vorbeiflugsonde, mit der er mechanisch und
+                              elektrisch verbunden war, abgetrennt.</s>
+                  <s>Lediglich die letzten 24 Stunden bezog er seine Energie von
+                              einer bordeigenen nichtaufladbaren Batterie mit einer Kapazität von
+                              250 Amperestunden.</s>
+                  <s>Der Bordcomputer und die Flugsteuerung des Impaktors waren
+                              der Vorbeiflugsonde ähnlich.</s>
+                  <s>Bedingt durch die kurze Lebensdauer verfügte der Impaktor im
+                              Gegensatz zur Vorbeiflugsonde über keine redundanten Systeme.</s>
+                  <s>Die Übertragungsdatenrate zur Vorbeiflugsonde betrug
+                              64 kbit/s auf einer maximalen Entfernung von 8700 km.</s>
+                  <s>Kommandos wurden mit 16 kbit/s zum Impaktor übertragen.</s>
+                  <s>Das hydrazinverbrennende Antriebssystem bestand aus einer
+                              Gruppe von Triebwerken mit einem Gesamtschub von 1750 N und
+                              ermöglichte eine Geschwindigkeitsänderung von 25 m/s.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Impaktor trug eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Disc">CD</ref>, die mit 625.000 Namen von Internetnutzern beschrieben
+                              war, die sich in der Zeit zwischen Mai 2003 und Ende Januar 2004 bei
+                              der Deep-Impact-Homepage für die Aktion „<gap reason="template" instant="false"/>“ angemeldet haben.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Instrumente </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_HRI_tests.jpg">mini|Die Instrumente der Vorbeiflugsonde (rechts HRI,
+                                 links MRI) bei den Tests</ref> Aus Kostengründen mussten die
+                              Experimente der Mission auf lediglich drei Instrumente beschränkt
+                              werden, davon zwei (HRI und MRI) auf der Vorbeiflugstufe und eines
+                              (ITS) auf dem Impaktor.</s>
+                  <s>Die Instrumente der Vorbeiflugsonde wiegen insgesamt 90 kg,
+                              zum Betrieb ist eine elektrische Leistung von 92 Watt
+                              erforderlich.</s>
+                  <s>Hauptaufgabe ist die Aufnahme von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrarotstrahlung">Infrarotspektren</ref> und Fotos im sichtbaren Licht,
+                              die anschließend zur Erde gefunkt werden sollen.</s>
+                  <s>Alle drei Instrumente wurden von Ball Aerospace
+                              entwickelt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_HRI.jpg">mini|High-Resolution Instrument</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_IR-spectrometer.jpg">mini|Infrarotspektrometer des HRI</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_MRI.jpg">mini|Medium-Resolution-Instrument</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Ablauf der Mission </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADelta_II_7925_%282925%29_rocket_with_Deep_Impact.jpg">mini|Trägerrakete Delta II 7925 mit Deep Impact kurz vor
+                              dem Start</ref> Die ersten Vorschläge für eine Kometeneinschlagmission
+                           gab es bei der NASA bereits 1996.</s>
+                  <s>Doch damals blieben NASA-Ingenieure skeptisch, ob der Komet
+                           getroffen werden könne.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f7" rend="ref"/> Ein überarbeiteter und technologisch
+                           auf den neusten Stand gebrachter Missionsvorschlag, genannt Deep Impact,
+                           wurde im März 1998 von der NASA in die Auswahl für eine Mission im Rahmen
+                           des Discovery-Programms einbezogen, im November 1998 war Deep Impact
+                           einer der fünf Finalisten mit der besten wissenschaftlichen Ausbeute von
+                           insgesamt 26 Vorschlägen.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f8" rend="ref"/> Schließlich wurde am 7. Juli 1999 <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> unter der Leitung
+                           von Dr. <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_A%27Hearn">Michael A&amp;amp;#39;Hearn</ref> von der University of
+                           Maryland in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Park_%28Maryland%29">College Park</ref> zusammen mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESSENGER">MESSENGER</ref> zur Finanzierung im Rahmen des Discovery-Programms
+                           bewilligt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Kosten der Raumsonde wurden damals mit 240 Millionen
+                           US-Dollar angegeben.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f9" rend="ref"/> Beide Teile der Deep-Impact-Raumsonde
+                           (Vorbeiflugsonde und Impaktor) sowie die drei wissenschaftlichen
+                           Instrumente wurden bei Ball Aerospace in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_%28Colorado%29">Boulder (Colorado)</ref>, USA gefertigt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Start </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der Entwicklung der Deep-Impact-Mission war der Start der
+                              Sonde zunächst für Januar 2004 mit einem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing-by">Swing-by</ref>-Manöver an der Erde am 31. Dezember 2004 und dem
+                              Zusammentreffen mit dem Kometen Tempel 1 am 4. Juli 2005 geplant.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f10" rend="ref"/> Doch aufgrund von Schwierigkeiten bei der
+                              Entwicklung der Sonde konnte der Starttermin nicht gehalten werden,
+                              der schließlich auf den 30. Dezember 2004 verschoben wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Dadurch flog die Sonde auf einer direkten Route zum Kometen,
+                              brauchte dafür allerdings eine etwas stärkere und daher auch teurere
+                                 Trägerrakete.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f11" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Am 18. Oktober 2004 traf Deep Impact in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center">Kennedy Space Center</ref> zu Startvorbereitungen
+                              ein.</s>
+                  <s>Doch auch der Starttermin am 30. Dezember 2004 konnte nicht
+                              gehalten werden und wurde zunächst auf den 8. Januar 2005 verschoben,
+                              um mehr Zeit für Softwaretests zu haben.</s>
+                  <s>Deep Impact wurde schließlich am 12. Januar 2005 um
+                              18:47:08,574 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koordinierte_Weltzeit">UTC</ref> mit einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_II">Delta-II</ref>-7925-Trägerrakete, ausgestattet mit einer
+                              Star-48-Oberstufe, vom <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_AFS_Launch_Complex_17">Launch Pad 17-B</ref> der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</ref> aus auf eine
+                              sechsmonatige und 431 Millionen Kilometer weite Reise zum Kometen
+                              Tempel 1 geschickt.</s>
+                  <s>Kurz nach dem Einschuss in die interplanetare Transferbahn
+                              ging die Sonde in ein <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi> über, konnte aber schnell reaktiviert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Als Ursache wurde ein zu empfindlicher Temperatursensor
+                              festgestellt, was die Mission nicht weiter gefährden sollte.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Flug </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_trajectory.jpg">mini|Flugbahn der Deep-Impact-Sonde</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADI_MRI_T1_doy150.jpg">mini|Tempel 1, fotografiert am 30. Mai mit dem
+                                 MRI-Instrument aus einer Entfernung von 31,2 Millionen
+                                 Kilometern</ref> Nach dem erfolgreichen Start begann die <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi> der Mission, während der die Flugsysteme und die Instrumente
+                              aktiviert, getestet und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibrierung">kalibriert</ref> wurden.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Tests ergaben ein vermindertes Auflösungsvermögen des
+                              HRI-Teleskops; es stellte sich später heraus, dass dieser Fehler
+                              nachträglich durch Bearbeitung auf der Erde teilweise korrigiert
+                              werden kann (mehr dazu im HRI-Abschnitt dieses Artikels).<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f12" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f13" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Am 11. Februar 2005 wurde wie geplant das erste
+                              Kurskorrekturmanöver durchgeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses Manöver war so präzise, dass die nächste geplante
+                              Kurskorrektur am 31. März abgesagt werden konnte.</s>
+                  <s>Am 25. März begann die <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi>, die bis 60 Tage vor dem Eintreffen beim Kometen laufen
+                              sollte.</s>
+                  <s>Am 25. April machte Deep Impact mit dem MRI-Instrument das
+                              erste Foto des Zielkometen, welcher zu dem Zeitpunkt noch
+                              63,9 Millionen Kilometer von der Sonde entfernt war.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f14" rend="ref"/> Am 4. Mai folgte das zweite Kurskorrekturmanöver,
+                              wobei die Triebwerke für 95 Sekunden feuerten und die Geschwindigkeit
+                              der Sonde um 18,2 km/h (5 m/s) änderten.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Am 5. Mai begann die <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi>, die von 60 bis fünf Tagen vor dem Zusammentreffen mit dem
+                              Kometen lief.</s>
+                  <s>60 Tage vor dem Eintreffen sollte der frühestmögliche Termin
+                              sein, um den Kometen mit dem MRI-Instrument entdecken zu können.</s>
+                  <s>Tatsächlich wurde der Komet wie oben erwähnt bereits am
+                              25. April erfolgreich fotografiert.</s>
+                  <s>In dieser Flugphase wurde die Umlaufbahn des Kometen, seine
+                              Rotation, Aktivität und Staubeigenschaften studiert.</s>
+                  <s>Am 14. und 22. Juni beobachtete Deep Impact zwei Ausbrüche
+                              auf dem Kometen, der letzte sechs Mal stärker als der erste.<ptr target="WPD17.D01.94938-f15" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Drei Wochen vor dem Einschlag wurde mit dem
+                              präziseren Ausrichten der Sonde auf ihr Ziel begonnen.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu wurden fortlaufend Aufnahmen des Kometen gemacht, um
+                              genaue Parameter für die letzten zwei Kurskorrekturen (<hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi>) vor dem Abtrennen des Impaktors zu bestimmen.</s>
+                  <s>Am 23. Juni wurde das erste <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi> durchgeführt, wobei die Geschwindigkeit um 6 m/s geändert und
+                              die Sonde in ein 100 km breites Zielfenster gesteuert wurde.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Begegnung mit dem Kometen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_encounter_sequence.png">mini|Diagramm der Begegnung Deep-Impacts mit dem
+                                 Kometen</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ADeep_Impact_ITMs.jpg">mini|Zielerfassungsmanöver des Impaktors</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AHRIV_Impact.gif">mini|Einschlag des Impaktors auf dem Kometen
+                                 Tempel 1</ref>
+                     <hi rend="pt">Die nachfolgenden Zeitangaben beziehen sich auf die
+                                 sogenannte <hi rend="it">Earth-receive</hi>-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koordinierte_Weltzeit">UTC</ref>-Zeit, das heißt, das tatsächliche
+                                 Ereignis trat in Wirklichkeit circa 7 min 26 s früher auf.</hi>
+                  </s>
+                  <hi rend="pt">
+                     <s>Dies ist die Zeit, die ein sich mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtgeschwindigkeit">Lichtgeschwindigkeit</ref> bewegendes Radiosignal
+                                 braucht, um von der Raumsonde zur Erde zu gelangen.</s>
+                  </hi>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi> begann fünf Tage vor und endete einen Tag nach dem
+                              Einschlag.</s>
+                  <s>Am 2. Juli, sechs Stunden vor dem Abtrennen des Impaktors,
+                              wurde das zweite und letzte <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </hi> durchgeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Triebwerke feuerten 30 Sekunden lang und änderten die
+                              Geschwindigkeit der Sonde um etwa 1 km/h (etwa 0,278 m/s).</s>
+                  <s>Sie wurde nun in ein etwa 15 km breites Zielfenster
+                              gesteuert.</s>
+                  <s>Am 3. Juli um 6:07, etwa 24 Stunden vor dem Einschlag, wurde
+                              der Impaktor durch losgelöste Federn mit einer Geschwindigkeit von
+                              34,8 cm/s abgetrennt.</s>
+                  <s>Zuvor wurde er um 5:12 auf bordeigene Energieversorgung
+                              umgeschaltet.</s>
+                  <s>Um 6:19, zwölf Minuten nach dem Abtrennen des Impaktors,
+                              feuerten die Triebwerke der Vorbeiflugsonde für 14 Minuten und
+                              verringerten ihre Geschwindigkeit um 102 m/s, um die Sonde vom
+                              Kollisionskurs abzubringen und Abstand zum Impaktor zu gewinnen.</s>
+                  <s>22 Stunden vor dem Einschlag schoss der Impaktor sein erstes
+                              Bild des Kometenkerns.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Um 3:53 am 4. Juli, zwei Stunden vor dem
+                              Einschlag, übernahm die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonavigationssoftware">Autonavigationssoftware</ref> die Steuerung des
+                              Impaktors.</s>
+                  <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonavigationssystem">Autonavigationssystem</ref> machte alle 15 Sekunden
+                              ein Bild des Kometen, um so die hellste Stelle auf der Oberfläche zu
+                              bestimmen.</s>
+                  <s>Zu dieser Stelle sollte der Impaktor mit Hilfe von drei <hi rend="it">
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> (ITMs)</hi>
+                              gesteuert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Damit sollte bewirkt werden, dass das Projektil in einem von
+                              der Sonne beleuchteten, gut einsehbaren Gebiet niedergeht, um das
+                              Ereignis bei optimalen Bedingungen von der Vorbeiflugsonde beobachten
+                              zu können.</s>
+                  <s>Das erste ITM erfolgte um 4:22 und dauerte 20 Sekunden, das
+                              zweite um 5:17, wobei 0,36 kg Treibstoff verbraucht wurden, und das
+                              dritte und letzte um 5:39 für 44 Sekunden mit 0,37 kg verbrauchtem
+                              Treibstoff.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Einschlag erfolgte um 5:52. Dabei wurde das
+                              letzte Bild 3,7 Sekunden vor der Kollision aus einer Höhe von etwa
+                              30 km über der Oberfläche vom Impaktor zur Muttersonde übertragen.</s>
+                  <s>Der Impaktor schlug unter einem Winkel von etwa 25 Grad
+                              auf.</s>
+                  <s>Die Raumsonde und der Komet bewegten sich auf unabhängigen
+                              Umlaufbahnen um die Sonne, die Sonde mit 21,9 km/s und der Komet mit
+                              29,9 km/s.</s>
+                  <s>Die Kollision fand mit einer relativen Geschwindigkeit von
+                              10,3 km/s (37.080 km/h) statt, dabei wurden ca. 19 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule">Gigajoule</ref> oder 4,5 Tonnen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT-%C3%84quivalent">TNT-Äquivalent</ref> Energie freigesetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Geschwindigkeit des Kometen wurde durch den Einschlag
+                              lediglich um 0,0001 mm/s verringert, was fast unmessbar ist.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.A00.82293">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/A00.82293 Abbildungsfehler, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbildungsfehler: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>AV-Portal, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Abbildungsfehler</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Es ist aber möglich, die Abbildungsfehler gegenüber
+                        einem einfachen System aus einer einzelnen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linse_%28Optik%29">Linse</ref> oder einem Spiegel sehr stark zu reduzieren.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu werden mehrere Linsen aus verschiedenen Glassorten bzw.
+                        Spiegel miteinander kombiniert und evtl. auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asph%C3%A4risch">asphärische</ref> Flächen eingesetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie werden durch eine Optimierungsrechnung so aufeinander
+                        abgestimmt, dass die gemeinsame Auswirkung aller Abbildungsfehler minimal
+                        wird.</s>
+                  <s>Dies nennt man <hi rend="it">Korrektion</hi> der Fehler bzw. des
+                        optischen Systems.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Dieser Prozess der Korrektion ist sehr
+                        kompliziert.</s>
+                  <s>Alle hier beschriebenen Abbildungsfehler überlagern sich, und
+                        Maßnahmen zur Verminderung eines bestimmten Fehlers beeinflussen im
+                        Allgemeinen auch alle anderen.</s>
+                  <s>Nur bei Systemen, die ausschließlich durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegel">Spiegel</ref> abbilden, tritt kein Farbfehler auf.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Monochromatische Fehler </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Sphärische Aberration <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ASphaerische_Aberration.svg">mini|hochkant=1.5|Sphärische Aberration zweiter
+                                 (niedrigster) Ordnung</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AAbbildungsfehler_am_Hohlspiegel_%28Katakaustik%29.svg">mini|hochkant=1.5|Auf der Abbildung erkennt man, wie
+                                 die roten einfallenden Strahlen an einem sphärischen Hohlspiegel
+                                 reflektiert werden.</ref>
+                  </s>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AAbbildungsfehler_am_Hohlspiegel_%28Katakaustik%29.svg">
+                     <s>Den durch die grünen Strahlen erkennbaren Abbildungsfehler
+                                 nennt man Katakaustik.</s>
+                  </ref>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="it">sphärische Aberration</hi>,
+                              auch <hi rend="it">Öffnungsfehler</hi> oder <hi rend="it">Kugelgestaltsfehler</hi> genannt, ist ein Schärfefehler und
+                              bewirkt, dass achsparallel einfallende oder vom gleichen Objektpunkt
+                              auf der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optische_Achse_%28Optik%29">optischen Achse</ref> ausgehende Lichtstrahlen nach
+                              dem Durchgang durch das System nicht die gleiche <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnittweite">Schnittweite</ref> haben.</s>
+                  <s>Sie laufen somit nicht in einem Punkt zusammen.<ptr target="WPD17.A00.82293-f2" rend="ref"/> Im Allgemeinen ist die Abweichung umso stärker, je
+                              weiter außen der Strahl verläuft.</s>
+                  <s>Die Schnittweite <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> des gebrochenen Strahls wird aus Symmetriegründen
+                              durch eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerade_Funktion">gerade Funktion</ref> gegeben: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Dabei ist <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> der Achsabstand, mit dem der Strahl in das System
+                              einfällt, und <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> gibt
+                              die Stärke der sphärischen Aberration k-ter Ordnung an.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> ist die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraxiale_Optik">paraxiale</ref> Schnittweite des gebrochenen
+                              Strahls.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Objektive mit sphärischer Aberration liefern ein
+                              weiches Bild mit zwar scharfen, aber kontrastarmen Details, zu denen
+                              nur die achsnahen Strahlen beitragen.</s>
+                  <s>Die achsfernen Strahlen erzeugen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_%28Lichteffekt%29">Halos</ref> an Hell-Dunkel-Übergängen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Motive vor und hinter der Ebene maximaler
+                              Schärfe werden unterschiedlich unscharf gezeichnet.</s>
+                  <s>Es gibt <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektiv_%28Optik%29">Objektive</ref>, deren sphärische Aberration man
+                              stufenlos in einem weiten Bereich einstellen kann, um die Unschärfe
+                              vor und hinter dem Fokus und die Schärfe im Fokus anpassen zu
+                              können.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Mit einem System, das nur sphärische
+                              (kugelförmige) brechende oder reflektierende Flächen enthält, kann man
+                              keine von sphärischer Aberration völlig freie reelle Abbildung
+                              erreichen (siehe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplanat">aplanatische Fläche</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Mit einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asph%C3%A4risch">asphärischen</ref> Oberfläche einer Linse oder eines
+                              Spiegels kann man die sphärische Aberration völlig korrigieren.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings ist das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleifen_%28Fertigungsverfahren%29">Schleifen</ref> einer Kugeloberfläche deutlich
+                              einfacher und damit billiger als das Schleifen asphärisch gekrümmter
+                              Flächen.</s>
+                  <s>Der weite Einsatz sphärischer Flächen beruht auf der
+                              Tatsache, dass ihre Abbildungseigenschaften <hi rend="it">gut
+                                 genug</hi> sind, bei gleichzeitig akzeptablem
+                              Herstellungsaufwand.</s>
+                  <s>Die Kosten für asphärisch geschliffene Linsen relativieren
+                              sich bei Mehrlinsensystemen, da man gegebenenfalls mit weniger Linsen
+                              die gleiche Abbildungsgüte erzielen kann.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Unterdessen gibt es Verfahren, <hi rend="it">Asphären</hi> hoher Qualität als Presslinge (Molding)
+                              herzustellen.</s>
+                  <s>Es gibt zwei Herstellungsverfahren: Kleine Linsen können
+                              direkt gepresst werden; größere werden durch Umformen einer
+                              volumengleichen sphärischen Linse hergestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Größe ist dabei nach oben durch zwei Probleme beschränkt:
+                              Zum einen gibt es nur wenige Glassorten, die für eine Umformung
+                              geeignet sind, zum anderen neigen umgeformte Linsen zu Inhomogenitäten
+                              durch innere Spannungen, die durch den Umformprozess entstehen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Kleine Kunststofflinsen werden im Spritzgieß-
+                              oder Spritzprägeverfahren kostengünstig gefertigt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In einigen Fällen wird auch eine
+                              Kunststoffschicht auf eine sphärische Glaslinse gegossen und dann
+                              durch Pressen in eine asphärische Form gebracht.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Mit Hilfe des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucaultsches_Schneidenverfahren">foucaultschen Schneidenverfahrens</ref> lassen sich
+                              sphärische Aberrationen auch mit einfachen Mitteln gut nachweisen.</s>
+                  <s>In der Massenfertigung optischer Teile sind heute <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometrie">interferometrische</ref> Verfahren üblich.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Sofern die sphärische Aberration das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufl%C3%B6sungsverm%C3%B6gen">Auflösungsvermögen</ref> begrenzt, kann dieses durch
+                              Abblenden bis zur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritische_Blende">kritischen Blende</ref> gesteigert werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der Reflexion an einem sphärischen
+                              Hohlspiegel entsteht ein Abbildungsfehler, dieser trägt den Namen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakaustik">Katakaustik</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Astigmatismus schiefer Bündel <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AMeridional%2BSagittalPlane.png">mini|hochkant=2|Astigmatismus: Objekte, die außerhalb
+                                 der optischen Achse liegen, werden unscharf abgebildet.</ref>
+                  </s>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AMeridional%2BSagittalPlane.png">
+                     <s>Ursache sind die verschiedenen Brennweiten in der
+                                 Meridional- (M) und Sagittalebene (S).</s>
+                  </ref>
+                  <s> Astigmatismus ist ein Schärfefehler, welcher
+                              das von einem Objektpunkt ausgehende und schräg in das Objektiv
+                              einfallende Strahlenbündel betrifft.</s>
+                  <s>Dabei ist zwischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittalebene_%28Optik%29">Meridional- und Sagittalebene</ref> zu
+                              unterscheiden.</s>
+                  <s>In Richtung der Meridionalebene (M), welche die optische
+                              Achse enthält, ist die Linse perspektivisch verkürzt, die
+                              Einfallswinkel variieren schneller mit dem Versatz des Strahls im
+                              Bündel.</s>
+                  <s>Daraus resultiert eine kürzere Brennweite.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Hinzu kommt, dass in den Punkten (B<hi rend="sub">M</hi> und B<hi rend="sub">S</hi>) keine Punkte, sondern
+                                 <hi rend="it">Brennlinien</hi> in der jeweils anderen Ebene
+                              abgebildet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Somit entsteht vor und hinter den beiden Brennebenen statt
+                              eines Kreises ein Oval, da jedes Strahlenbündel einer Ebene zur
+                              Ellipse wird und in jedem Punkt einen anderen Öffnungswinkel hat.</s>
+                  <s>Wird ein Schirm hinter die sagittale Brennebene gehalten, ist
+                              ein Oval mit langer Halbachse in meridonaler Richtung (rot) zu
+                              sehen.</s>
+                  <s>Analog dazu ist das Oval vor der meridionalen Brennebene mit
+                              längerer Halbachse in sagittaler Richtung (grün).</s>
+                  <s>Dazwischen existiert eine Stelle, wo ein Punkt als unscharfer
+                              Kreis abgebildet wird, der <hi rend="it">kleinste
+                                 Zerstreuungskreis</hi> oder <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreis_kleinster_Verwirrung">Kreis kleinster Verwirrung</ref>
+                     </hi>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Charakterisiert wird der Astigmatismus durch die
+                                 <hi rend="it">astigmatische Differenz</hi>, den Abstand zwischen
+                              den Brennlinien.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser wächst mit stärkerer Neigung des einfallenden Bündels
+                              zur optischen Achse, der Linsenstärke, der Linsendicke und der
+                              Linsengeometrie.</s>
+                  <s>So haben Bi-Linsen im Gegensatz zu <hi rend="it">durchgebogenen</hi> Linsenformen einen besonders starken
+                              Astigmatismus bei schräg einfallendem Einfallsbündel.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Linsenfehler wurde im Mittelalter und früher Neuzeit
+                              zur Korrektur des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astigmatismus_%28Medizin%29">Augenastigmatismus</ref> benutzt, indem man schräg
+                              durch die Bi-Brille durchsah und dadurch seinen eigenen Astigmatismus
+                              kompensierte.</s>
+                  <s>Typisch ist der dadurch entstehende <hi rend="it">Schneiderblick</hi> oder <hi rend="it">Schneiderhals</hi>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein optisches System kann so konstruiert werden,
+                              dass Astigmatismus-Effekte verringert oder verhindert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Solche Optiken heißen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastigmat">Anastigmaten</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Bezeichnung hat nur noch historische Bedeutung, da
+                              dieser Fehler bei modernen Objektiven nur mehr bei schweren
+                              Fabrikationsfehlern auftritt.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Ausnahme stellen die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiefspiegler">Schiefspiegler</ref> – eine Gruppe von astronomischen
+                              Teleskopen – dar, bei denen der Fehler besonders korrigiert
+                              wird.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein dem Astigmatismus ähnlicher Bildfehler kann
+                              bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegelteleskop">Spiegelteleskopen</ref> der Amateurastronomie
+                              auftreten, deren <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokussierung">Fokussierung</ref> oft durch axiale Verschiebung des Hauptspiegels
+                              erfolgt.</s>
+                  <s>Dies kann zu kleinen Verkippungen führen, wodurch das Bild
+                              der Sterne nicht mehr punktförmig ist, sondern bei Scharfstellung von
+                              extra- bzw. intrafokaler Seite horizontal bzw. vertikal etwas länglich
+                              erscheint.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> Axialer
+                              Astigmatismus </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Unvollkommene Linsen, die nicht korrekt rotationssymmetrisch
+                              um die optische Achse sind, bilden auch achsparallele Bündel
+                              astigmatisch ab.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Objektpunkt wird je nach Fokussierung als Strich (längs
+                              oder quer) abgebildet.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Fehler spielt in der Augenoptik und der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronenoptik">Elektronenoptik</ref> eine entscheidende Rolle.</s>
+                  <s>Die einfachste Form des axialen Astigmatismus lässt sich
+                              durch Kombination mit einer in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brechkraft">Brechkraft</ref> und Achsrichtung genau dimensionierten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zylinderlinse">Zylinderlinse</ref> korrigieren (Zylinderglas in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brille">Brille</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmator">Stigmator</ref> im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronenmikroskop">Elektronenmikroskop</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Die Fertigung von Glaslinsen für sichtbares Licht ist
+                              inzwischen so vollkommen, dass hier kein störender axialer
+                              Astigmatismus auftritt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Koma <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ALens_coma.svg">mini|Koma an einer Sammellinse</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AKoma_strangelove.jpg">mini|links|hochkant|Abbildung eines Sterns als
+                                 Schweif.</ref>
+                  </s>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AKoma_strangelove.jpg">
+                     <s>Links unten zum Vergleich das Beugungsscheibchen bei
+                                 fehlerfreier, z. B.</s>
+                     <s>achsennaher Abbildung.</s>
+                  </ref>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Koma (Asymmetriefehler, von lat.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">coma</hi> ‚Schopf, Schweif‘) entsteht bei
+                              schräg zur optischen Achse einfallendem Strahlenbündel durch eine
+                              Überlagerung zweier Abbildungsfehler: der auch bei achsparallelem
+                              Bündel wirkenden sphärischen Aberration und dem Astigmatismus schiefer
+                              Bündel.</s>
+                  <s>Anstelle eines scharfen Beugungsscheibchens entsteht ein
+                              Bildpunkt mit zum Rand der Optik gerichtetem „Schweif“,
+                              der dem Phänomen den Namen gibt.</s>
+                  <s>Durch Abblenden der Randstrahlen kann die Erscheinung
+                              gemindert werden, der Astigmatismus schiefer Bündel bleibt aber
+                              bestehen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Koma kann sowohl bei Linsen als auch bei
+                              Spiegeloptiken auftreten.</s>
+                  <s>Optische Systeme bei denen sowohl die sphärische Aberration
+                              als auch die Koma vollständig korrigiert sind, heißen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplanat">Aplanate</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Bildfeldwölbung <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">weitergehender Artikel <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petzvalsche_Bildfeldw%C3%B6lbung">Petzvalsche Bildfeldwölbung</ref>
+                     </hi> [[Datei:Objektmikrometer4x.jpg|mini|Ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objektmikrometer">Objektmikrometer</ref> bei geringer mikroskopischer
+                              Vergrößerung (Vierfach-Objektiv); besonders am rechten Rand des Bildes
+                              ist die Bildfeldwölbung an der Unschärfe der Skalierung zu erkennen.]]
+                           </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wenn eine Optik eine Bildfeldwölbung aufweist,
+                              wird das Bild nicht auf einer Ebene, sondern auf einer gewölbten
+                              Fläche erzeugt – es ist daher ein sogenannter Lagefehler.</s>
+                  <s>Die Position des Strahlenschnittpunkts längs der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optische_Achse_%28Optik%29">optischen Achse</ref> ist dann von der Bildhöhe
+                              abhängig, das heißt je weiter Objekt- und damit Bildpunkte von der
+                              Achse entfernt sind, umso mehr ist der Bildpunkt in Achsrichtung
+                              verschoben (typischerweise nach vorn, zum Objektiv hin).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Somit kann man auf einer ebenen
+                              Projektionsfläche das Bild eines ebenen Gegenstandes nicht auf der
+                              ganzen Fläche scharf abbilden.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn man auf die Bildmitte fokussiert, ist der Rand unscharf
+                              und umgekehrt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bildfeldwölbungen gibt es nicht nur bei
+                              Objektiven, sondern auch bei anderen optischen Bauteilen, z. B.</s>
+                  <s>bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okular">Okularen</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projektor">Projektoren</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Sie kann jedoch – wie die meisten anderen
+                              Abbildungsfehler – durch spezielle Anordnung der Linsen unter
+                              der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toleranz_%28Technik%29">Toleranzschwelle</ref> gehalten werden
+                              (Planfeldoptik).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Planfeldoptiken sind auch bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserscanner">Scannern</ref> zur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasergravur">Lasergravur</ref> erforderlich, um ebene Flächen zu
+                              bearbeiten.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei manchen Spezialkameras wird dagegen die
+                              Bildfeldwölbung durch Anpressen des fotografischen Films an eine
+                              gekrümmte Fläche ausgeglichen, beispielsweise bei der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker-Nunn-Kamera">Baker-Nunn</ref>-Satellitenkamera.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalkamera">Digitalkameras</ref> können gewölbte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildsensor">Bildsensoren</ref> eingesetzt werden, um den Bildfehler zu
+                                 kompensieren.<ptr target="WPD17.A00.82293-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Verzeichnung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AGeometrical_Aberration_de.svg">hochkant=1.5|mini|Geometrische Verzeichnung</ref>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Verzeichnung ist ein Lagefehler und bedeutet,
+                              dass die Bildhöhe (Abstand eines Bildpunkts von der Bildmitte) auf
+                              nichtlineare Weise von der Höhe des entsprechenden Objektpunkts
+                              abhängt.</s>
+                  <s>Man kann auch sagen: Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbildungsma%C3%9Fstab">Abbildungsmaßstab</ref> hängt von der Höhe des
+                              Objektpunkts ab.</s>
+                  <s>Man beachte, dass hier der Begriff „Bildmitte“
+                              nicht den rechnerischen Mittelpunkt des Bildes bezeichnet, der sich
+                              durch die Pixelzahl ergibt.</s>
+                  <s>Vielmehr ist der Punkt gemeint, in dem die optische Achse die
+                              Bildebene schneidet.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Punkt wird auch als Verzeichnungszentrum
+                              bezeichnet.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Verzeichnung bewirkt, dass gerade Linien, deren
+                              Abbild nicht durch die Bildmitte geht, gekrümmt wiedergegeben
+                              werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wenn der Abbildungsmaßstab mit zunehmender Höhe
+                              abnimmt, nennt man dies <hi rend="it">tonnenförmige
+                              Verzeichnung</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Dann wird ein Quadrat mit nach außen gewölbten Seiten
+                              abgebildet, sieht also etwa wie eine Tonne aus (Name).</s>
+                  <s>Den umgekehrten Fall nennt man <hi rend="it">kissenförmige
+                                 Verzeichnung</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Dann sieht das Quadrat aus wie ein Sofakissen.</s>
+                  <s>Es kann auch <hi rend="it">wellenförmige Verzeichnung</hi>
+                              auftreten, wenn sich verschiedene Ordnungen der Verzeichnung
+                              überlagern.</s>
+                  <s>Gerade Linien werden dann wie Wellenlinien nach beiden Seiten
+                              gekrümmt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Weitwinkelobjektive in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrofokus">Retrofokus</ref>-Bauweise (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnittweite">Schnittweite</ref> größer als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brennweite">Brennweite</ref>) neigen zur tonnenförmigen Verzeichnung und
+                              Teleobjektive (Baulänge kleiner als Brennweite) zur
+                              kissenförmigen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Sogenannte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischaugen-Objektiv">Fischaugen-Objektive</ref> weisen eine starke
+                              tonnenförmige Verzeichnung auf.</s>
+                  <s>Dies ist gewollt, um einerseits einen größeren Bildwinkel zu
+                              erreichen (180 Grad und mehr sind nur durch Verzeichnung möglich), und
+                              andererseits die Verzeichnung für die Bildgestaltung einzusetzen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldstecher">Feldstechern</ref> (Ferngläsern) mit Weitwinkelokularen ist eine
+                              kissenförmige Verzeichnung ausdrücklich erwünscht, um beim Schwenken
+                              des Glases eine unangenehme Bewegung des Vordergrundes gegenüber dem
+                              Hintergrund zu vermeiden.</s>
+                  <s>Die physikalische Grundlage hierfür stellt die so genannte
+                                 „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winkelbedingung">Winkelbedingung</ref>“ dar, die bei
+                              Feldstechern erfüllt sein soll (im Unterschied zu der „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangentenbedingung">Tangentenbedingung</ref>“ bei
+                              Fotoobjektiven).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Chromatische Aberration </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AChromatic_aberration_convex.svg">mini|Chromatische Aberration</ref>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brechungsindex">Brechungsindex</ref> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optisches_Glas">optischem Glas</ref> hängt von der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellenl%C3%A4nge">Wellenlänge</ref>
+                     <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> des einfallenden
+                           Lichts ab.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Erscheinung wird <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_%28Physik%29">Dispersion</ref> genannt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie ist die Ursache für die <hi rend="it">chromatische
+                              Aberration</hi>.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Farbquerfehler <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AChromatische_Aberration.jpg">mini|hochkant|Farbquerfehler,
+                                 Ausschnittvergrößerung</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Brechungsindex der Linsen eines optischen
+                              Systems beeinflusst den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbildungsma%C3%9Fstab">Abbildungsmaßstab</ref>, der somit von der
+                              Wellenlänge abhängt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Teilbilder, die vom Licht unterschiedlicher Wellenlänge
+                              gebildet werden, sind dadurch verschieden groß.</s>
+                  <s>Diesen Effekt nennt man <hi rend="it">Farbquerfehler</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Er bewirkt Farbsäume an Kanten des Bildmotivs, falls diese
+                              nicht radial verlaufen, und eine Unschärfe des Bildes.</s>
+                  <s>Die Breite der Farbsäume ist proportional zum Abstand von der
+                              Bildmitte.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Farblängsfehler <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AFarblaengsfehler_DSC00247_wp.jpg">mini|hochkant|Farblängsfehler: Rote Farbsäume vor der
+                                 eigentlichen Schärfeebene, grüne dahinter</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Auch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnittweite">Schnittweite</ref> des Systems, und damit der Abstand des Bildes
+                              von der letzten Fläche des Systems, ist vom Brechungsindex der Linsen
+                              und somit von der Wellenlänge des Lichts abhängig.</s>
+                  <s>Dadurch kann man die Teilbilder unterschiedlicher Farben
+                              nicht gleichzeitig scharf auffangen, weil sie an verschiedenen
+                              Positionen stehen.</s>
+                  <s>Dies nennt man <hi rend="it">Farblängsfehler</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Es entsteht eine Unschärfe, die nicht von der Bildhöhe
+                              abhängt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Gaußfehler <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Dispersion der optischen Gläser bewirkt eine Variation
+                              der übrigen Abbildungsfehler mit der Wellenlänge.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn die Koma für grünes Licht korrigiert ist, kann sie für
+                              rotes und blaues Licht trotzdem vorhanden sein.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Effekt kann die Güte eines Objektivs erheblich
+                              beeinflussen und muss bei der Konstruktion von hochwertigen Systemen
+                              berücksichtigt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Im Fall der sphärischen Aberration bezeichnet man diesen
+                              Effekt als Gaußfehler, wobei die Bezeichnung oft auf die übrigen
+                              Fehler ausgedehnt wird.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AAchromat_de.svg">mini|Achromat</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AApochromat.svg">mini|Apochromat</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Achromat </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wenn in einem System Linsengläser mit erheblich voneinander
+                              verschiedenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe-Zahl">Abbe-Zahlen</ref> verwendet werden, kann der
+                              Farbfehler stark verringert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Speziell versteht man unter einem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achromat">Achromaten</ref> ein Objektiv, bei dem die Änderung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnittweite">Schnittweite</ref> mit der Wellenlänge für eine Wellenlänge
+                              verschwindet.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Apochromat </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine Weiterentwicklung stellen so genannte apochromatisch
+                              korrigierte Objektive oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apochromat">Apochromate</ref> dar.</s>
+                  <s>Für diese verwendet man Gläser mit ungewöhnlichem
+                              Dispersionsverhalten, wodurch auch das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekund%C3%A4res_Spektrum">sekundäre Spektrum</ref> korrigiert werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>In der klassischen Ausführung werden diese so berechnet, dass
+                              die Schnittweiten bei drei Wellenlängen (z. B.</s>
+                  <s>Rot, Grün und Blau) übereinstimmen, wodurch der
+                              Farblängsfehler auch bei allen anderen Wellenlängen des sichtbaren
+                              Lichts sehr gering wird.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Hinweis auf so korrigierte Systeme ist meist die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abk%C3%BCrzung">Abkürzung</ref>
+                     <hi rend="it">APO</hi> auf den Objektiven.</s>
+                  <s>Sie sind in aller Regel bedeutend teurer als lediglich
+                              achromatisch korrigierte Produkte.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross"> Siehe auch </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.U01.96211">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/U01.96211 U-Bahn Nürnberg, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-Bahn_Nürnberg: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>HerrMay, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>U-Bahn Nürnberg</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nachdem die Vollendung der beiden ersten Stammlinien zu
+                              Beginn der 1990er Jahre abzusehen war, mussten sich die
+                              verantwortlichen Stellen der Stadt Nürnberg Gedanken über die im GNVP
+                              vorgesehene dritte Stammlinie machen.</s>
+                  <s>Da vor dem Hintergrund des „Leitbildes Verkehr“
+                              eine Überprüfung der GNVP-Planungen aus den 1970er Jahren auf deren
+                              Aktualität notwendig erschien, gab das Baureferat beim Münchner
+                              Ingenieurbüro Intraplan Consult die „Untersuchung von
+                              ÖPNV-Netzvarianten im Rahmen der U-Bahn-Ausbauplanungen“ in
+                              Auftrag.</s>
+                  <s>Das Gutachten wurde im Juni 1990 veröffentlicht und kam zu
+                              dem Schluss, dass der weitere U-Bahn-Ausbau in der bisher geplanten
+                              Form (U3) ebenso wie in einer geänderten Planung (Abzweig
+                              Rothenburger Straße – Kleinreuth und Rathenauplatz –
+                              Friedrich-Ebert-Platz – Thon) nur bei gleichzeitiger
+                              Stilllegung des Straßenbahnnetzes sinnvoll wäre und einen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardisierte_Bewertung">Kosten-Nutzen-Faktor</ref> größer 1<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f17" rend="ref"/> aufweisen würde.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Auf Grund dieses Ergebnisses nahm die Stadt in
+                              ihrem Beschluss vom 8. November 1990 von den bisherigen U3-Planungen
+                              Abstand und gab die „Integrierte ÖPNV-Planung Nürnberg“
+                              (INTRAPLAN) bei demselben Ingenieurbüro in Auftrag.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses Gutachten wurde im Februar 1993 veröffentlicht und
+                              befasste sich hauptsächlich mit der Alternative U-Bahn (als U21
+                              bezeichnet) oder Straßenbahn/Stadtbahn auf dem Korridor Nordstadt
+                              – Klinikum Nord – Wetzendorf bzw. Rothenburger Straße
+                              – Sündersbühl – Kleinreuth bei Schweinau.</s>
+                  <s>Als problematisch stellte sich jedoch heraus, dass keine
+                              konkrete Aussage für oder gegen eines der beiden Systeme gemacht
+                              werden konnte.</s>
+                  <s>Das lag an der Tatsache, dass sich die Kosten-Nutzen-Faktoren
+                              der untersuchten Planfälle mit bzw. ohne MIV-Restriktionen (z. B.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampel">Pförtnerampel</ref>) in etwa die Waage hielten: für die
+                              U21-Varianten sprach die Unabhängigkeit des Verkehrsmittels U-Bahn,
+                              für die Straßenbahn/Stadtbahn deren geringere Baukosten.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f18" rend="ref"/> Der Nürnberger Stadtrat beschloss auf Grundlage
+                              dieses Gutachtens am 12. Oktober 1994 ein neues ÖPNV-Konzept mit einer
+                              von der U2 an den Bahnhöfen <hi rend="it">Rothenburger Straße</hi>
+                              Richtung Von-der-Tann-Straße und Tiefes Feld und <hi rend="it">Rathenauplatz</hi> Richtung Friedrich-Ebert-Platz und Klinikum
+                              Nord abzweigenden U-Bahn-Linie, sowie den gleichzeitigen Ausbau und
+                              die Modernisierung des Betriebszweigs Straßenbahn.</s>
+                  <s>Im Herbst 1996 wurde im Stadtrat die Streckenführung der U3
+                              von Gebersdorf über Rothenburger Straße, Plärrer, Hauptbahnhof und
+                              Rathenauplatz zum Nordwestring festgelegt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Kostenersparnis bei der neuen Linie U3 durch
+                              Mitnutzung des Tunnels der U2 war ein wesentlicher Faktor in der
+                              Finanzierbarkeit des Projektes.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings führt es zur Problematik, dass bei zwei sich
+                              überlagernden Linien Züge im Abstand von zwei Minuten und weniger auf
+                              dem gemeinsamen Abschnitt fahren, was die aktuelle Signaltechnik nicht
+                              leisten konnte.</s>
+                  <s>Es stellte sich also die Frage, welche Technologie verwendet
+                              werden soll, um die notwendigen kürzeren Zugfolgen zu erreichen.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu wurde vom Stadtrat in Zusammenarbeit mit der VAG,
+                              Siemens, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adtranz">Adtranz</ref>, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelfranken">Regierung von Mittelfranken</ref> und dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayerisches_Staatsministerium_f%C3%BCr_Wirtschaft%2C_Infrastruktur%2C_Verkehr_und_Technologie">Bayerischen Staatsministerium für Wirtschaft,
+                                 Infrastruktur, Verkehr und Technologie</ref> die SMARAGT-Studie
+                                 (<hi rend="it">S</hi>tudie zur <hi rend="it">Ma</hi>chbarkeit und
+                                 <hi rend="it">R</hi>ealisierung eines <hi rend="it">A</hi>utomatic
+                                 <hi rend="it">G</hi>uided <hi rend="it">T</hi>ransit) in Auftrag
+                              gegeben, in der mehrere Betriebsformen (konventionell, automatisch,
+                              Mischbetrieb) gegenübergestellt und unter betrieblichen und
+                              finanziellen Aspekten bewertet wurden.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f19" rend="ref"/> Die Studie wurde 1999 abgeschlossen und kam zu dem
+                              Ergebnis, dass ein automatischer Betrieb auf der neuen U-Bahn-Linie
+                              machbar und finanzierbar sowie wirtschaftlich sinnvoll ist.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f19" rend="ref"/> Nach Zusage von Bund und Land, die Streckentechnik
+                              mit 87,5 %, die Strecke mit 85 % sowie die Fahrzeuge mit 50 % zu
+                              fördern, wurde die Realisierung des insgesamt 610 Millionen Euro<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f20" rend="ref"/> teuren Projektes RUBIN (<hi rend="it">R</hi>ealisierung einer automatischen <hi rend="it">U</hi>-<hi rend="it">B</hi>ahn <hi rend="it">i</hi>n <hi rend="it">N</hi>ürnberg) noch im selben Jahr vom Nürnberger Stadtrat
+                              beschlossen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Ausschreibung für Fahrzeuge und Streckenausrüstung begann
+                              im Dezember 2000, aus der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_Mobility">Siemens Transportation Systems</ref> am 16. November
+                              2001 als Gewinner hervorging.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f19" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>→ <hi rend="it">Hauptartikel: <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/RUBIN">RUBIN</ref>
+                     </hi>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Der Bau der U3 </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AN%C3%BCrnberg_U3_Nordwest.png">mini|Der Streckenverlauf bis zum Nordwestring</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AN%C3%BCrnberg_U3_S%C3%BCdwest.png">mini|Der Streckenverlauf bis nach Gebersdorf</ref>
+                              Die seit 1996 feststehende Streckenführung des Südabschnitts wurde
+                              1997 vom Tiefbauamt auf Grund von Anwohnereinwänden überarbeitet.</s>
+                  <s>Entgegen den ursprünglichen Planungen, bei der die Strecke
+                              unter der Rothenburger Straße bis zu einem Bahnhof westlich der
+                              Kreuzung Von-der-Tann-Straße (Westring) verlaufen, auf Höhe der
+                              Steinmetzstraße nach Südwesten zum Bahnhof Großreuth abschwenken und
+                              anschließend das „Tiefe Feld“ zentral von Ost nach West
+                              durchqueren sollte, wurde die Trasse ab der Blücherstraße nach Süden
+                              in die Wallensteinstraße mit einem Bahnhof östlich des Rings verlegt
+                              sowie die Querung des „Tiefen Feldes“ zu Gunsten des
+                              Verlaufs näher an Kleinreuth unter der „Neuen Rothenburger
+                              Straße“ geändert.</s>
+                  <s>Die Bauarbeiten für die ersten beiden Bauabschnitte (BA)
+                              Rothenburger Straße – Gustav-Adolf-Straße (BA 1.1) und
+                              Rathenauplatz – Maxfeld (BA 1.2) begannen im Juni 2000 und
+                              waren im Dezember 2004 abgeschlossen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Vorfeld der Planungen für den nächsten
+                              Abschnitt der U3-Nord zum Friedrich-Ebert-Platz (BA 1.3) wurde im
+                              September 2000 vom „Arbeitskreis Attraktiver Nahverkehr“
+                              (AAN) eine alternative Streckenführung vom Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Maxfeld</hi> über den Nordbahnhof und weiter Richtung <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetzendorf_%28N%C3%BCrnberg%29">Wetzendorf</ref> vorgeschlagen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese sollte nach den Vorstellungen des AAN ein im Zuge der
+                              Bahnflächenveräußerungen neu entstehendes Siedlungsgebiet auf dem
+                              Nordbahnhofgelände an den ÖPNV anbinden.</s>
+                  <s>Der Vorschlag wurde von der Stadt abgelehnt, da die Änderung
+                              des Streckenverlaufs faktisch eine Neuplanung bedeutet hätte und die
+                              zu erwartenden Fahrgastzahlen der neuen Trasse im Gegensatz zur alten
+                              geringer ausgefallen wären.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nach der Fertigstellung des ersten Abschnittes
+                              wurde der automatische Probebetrieb mit den neuen Fahrzeugen
+                              aufgenommen.</s>
+                  <s>Nach den ursprünglichen Planungen sollte die Linie im
+                              Frühjahr 2006 rechtzeitig vor Beginn der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu%C3%9Fball-Weltmeisterschaft_2006">Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft</ref> für den Verkehr
+                              freigegeben werden.</s>
+                  <s>Auf Grund von unerwarteten Schwierigkeiten im Zusammenspiel
+                              der einzelnen Komponenten (Zug und Strecke) und zu straff gesteckter
+                              Zeitpläne konnte der Eröffnungstermin nicht gehalten werden.</s>
+                  <s>Er wurde zuerst von März auf September 2006 und nach einer
+                              Krisensitzung von Stadtrat und Siemens am 24. März 2006 auf Ende 2007
+                              oder Anfang 2008 verschoben.</s>
+                  <s>Nachdem die Probleme offensichtlich geworden waren, wurde das
+                              Projektmanagement von Siemens umstrukturiert und personell
+                              aufgestockt, so dass der neue Zeitplan eingehalten und die Strecke am
+                              14. Juni 2008<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f1" rend="ref"/> eröffnet werden konnte.</s>
+                  <s>Am 10. Dezember 2011 wurde das Nordende der Strecke um die
+                              Bahnhöfe Kaulbachplatz und Friedrich-Ebert-Platz verlängert; am 22.
+                              Mai 2017 wurde der aktuellen Planungen zu Folge finale
+                              Streckenabschnitt mit den Bahnhöfen Klinikum Nord und Nordwestring
+                              eröffnet.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Planungen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AU-Bahn_N%C3%BCrnberg_Netzerweiterungen.png">mini|hochkant=1.5|Liniennetz mit offiziellen
+                              Planungen</ref> Neben den im <hi rend="it">Projekt
+                              Nahverkehrsentwicklungsplan 2025</hi> der Stadt Nürnberg
+                           vorgeschlagenen Erweiterungen des U-Bahn-Netzes liegen für die folgenden
+                           Vorhaben konkrete Planungen vor: </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Automatisierung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nachdem die Ausrüstung der U2-Äste mit den für automatischen
+                              Fahrbetrieb benötigten Einrichtungen erfolgt ist und der
+                              Erprobungsbetrieb erfolgreich abgeschlossen werden konnte, erhielt die
+                              VAG am 25. September 2009 die Zulassung für den automatischen
+                              Fahrbetrieb mit Fahrgästen.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f21" rend="ref"/> Seit 28. September 2009
+                              verkehren die ersten vier Kurse im Automatikbetrieb, der Abschluss der
+                              Umstellung erfolgte am 2. Januar 2010.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine Automatisierung der U1 ist derzeit nicht
+                                 vorgesehen.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f22" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Erweiterungen in Nürnberg und Fürth </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> U1 </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Mit dem Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Fürth Hardhöhe</hi> hat die
+                                 U1 nach 40 Jahren ihren vorläufigen Endpunkt erreicht.</s>
+                  <s>Ob der Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Fürth Kieselbühl</hi>
+                                 nordwestlich der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardh%C3%B6he">Hardhöhe</ref> noch gebaut wird, hängt stark von
+                                 der Finanzkraft der Stadt Fürth sowie von der Entwicklung dieses
+                                 Stadtteils ab.</s>
+                  <s>Das Gebiet ist im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%A4chennutzungsplan">Flächennutzungsplan</ref> als Gewerbegebiet
+                                 ausgezeichnet.</s>
+                  <s>Falls das Gebiet in der Zukunft doch bebaut werden sollte,
+                                 könnte eine Verlängerung der U-Bahn in Zusammenhang mit der
+                                 Errichtung einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park-and-ride">Park-and-Ride</ref>-Anlage erfolgen.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f23" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> U2 </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Mit der Eröffnung der Strecke bis zum Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Flughafen</hi> ist die U2 auf Nürnberger Stadtgebiet
+                                 fertig gestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Um ein geplantes Gewerbegebiet erschließen zu können,
+                                 wurden beim Bau des Tunnels bauliche Vorleistungen für einen
+                                 Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Marienberg</hi> zwischen den Stationen
+                                 Ziegelstein und Flughafen getroffen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> U3 </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Norden hat die U3 mit der Eröffnung des Endbahnhofes
+                                 Nordwestring im Mai 2017 bis auf Weiteres ihren Endpunkt
+                                 erreicht.</s>
+                  <s>Im Süden ist die Verlängerung vom Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Gustav-Adolf-Straße</hi> bis zum Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Großreuth bei Schweinau</hi> (BA 2.1) in Bau, die mit Bescheid
+                                 vom 19. Juli 2010 von der Regierung von Mittelfranken genehmigt
+                                    wurde.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f24" rend="ref"/> Nach der erfolgreichen Klage
+                                 eines von den Bauarbeiten für den U-Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Großreuth
+                                    bei Schweinau</hi> betroffenen Anliegers vor dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayerischer_Verwaltungsgerichtshof">Bayerischen Verwaltungsgerichtshof</ref> wird sich
+                                 der Baubeginn und die Fertigstellung der südlichen
+                                 Streckenerweiterung um voraussichtlich zwei Jahre verschieben.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f25" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f26" rend="ref"/> Ob die anschließende Erweiterung des Südastes
+                                 über den Bahnhof <hi rend="it">Großreuth bei Schweinau</hi> hinaus
+                                 in der bisher geplanten Form realisiert wird, ist noch nicht
+                                 abschließend geklärt und war bereits Thema einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleine_Anfrage">Kleinen Anfrage</ref> im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Bundestag">Bundestag</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f27" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f28" rend="ref"/> Vorgesehen ist dabei der Bau der Bahnhöfe <hi rend="it">Kleinreuth</hi> südlich des Stadtteils <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleinreuth_bei_Schweinau">Kleinreuth bei Schweinau</ref> und <hi rend="it">Gebersdorf</hi> auf dem Gelände des ehemaligen Haltepunkts <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahnh%C3%B6fe_in_N%C3%BCrnberg%23F%25C3%25BCrth_S%25C3%25BCd">Fürth Süd</ref>
+                     </hi> der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibertbahn">Bibertbahn</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Verlängerungen in den Landkreis Fürth </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Verlängerungen der U2 und U3 stehen derzeit in Konkurrenz
+                              zueinander, aus Kostengründen soll nur eines der beiden Vorhaben
+                              verwirklicht werden.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f29" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> U2 nach Stein </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Weiterbau der U2 von Röthenbach aus nach Stein war
+                                 Teil der Grundnetzplanungen aus den 1970er Jahren.</s>
+                  <s>Eine erste <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftlichkeit">Wirtschaftlichkeitsuntersuchung</ref> aus dem Jahr
+                                 1994 erreichte mit einem Kosten-Nutzen-Faktor von 0,33 nicht den
+                                 für eine Förderung notwendigen Wert größer gleich eins, allerdings
+                                 wurde nur der Teilabschnitt von Röthenbach bis zum geplanten
+                                 Endpunkt in Deutenbach untersucht.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f30" rend="ref"/> 1997 gab der
+                                 Zweckverband Verkehrsverbund Großraum Nürnberg (ZVGN) beim
+                                 Ingenieurbüro Intraplan Consult eine weitere Untersuchung in
+                                 Auftrag, die diesmal den Streckenabschnitt vom Hauptbahnhof bis
+                                 Deutenbach beinhaltete.</s>
+                  <s>Bei dieser Untersuchung wurde ein Kosten-Nutzen-Faktor von
+                                 1,7 bei einer geschätzten Gesamtbausumme von 159,01 Millionen Euro
+                                 (311 Millionen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mark">D-Mark</ref>)<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f31" rend="ref"/> ermittelt, auf Grund
+                                 dieser Zahlen die Verlängerung der U2 vom Nürnberger Stadtrat
+                                 beschlossen wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Auch die Stadt <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stein_%28Mittelfranken%29">Stein</ref> befürwortete den Bau, um die
+                                 Steiner Hauptstraße (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_14">B 14</ref>) vom Durchgangsverkehr zu entlasten,
+                                 konnte aber den damals geforderten mindestens siebenstelligen
+                                 Eigenbeitrag an den Baukosten sowie die Betriebskosten nicht
+                                    aufbringen.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f31" rend="ref"/> Durch die mittlerweile
+                                 angelaufene Automatisierung der U2 ergäbe sich eine neue
+                                 Möglichkeit zur Verlängerung in die Nachbarstadt, an der beide
+                                 Städte immer noch Interesse haben.</s>
+                  <s>Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein neues Gutachten vom ZVGN
+                                 erstellt, das die Auswirkungen des automatischen Betriebs auf die
+                                 Betriebs- und Unterhaltskosten untersuchen sollte.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f32" rend="ref"/> Nachdem die U3-Verlängerung nach Zirndorf per
+                                 Bürgerentscheid abgelehnt wurde, forderte der Steiner Bürgermeister
+                                 Kurt Krömer eine rasche Untersuchung der U2-Verlängerung parallel
+                                 zur verbleibenden U3-Verlängerung Richtung Oberasbach/Leichendorf,
+                                 um die Chance auf die 2013 auslaufende zweckgebundene
+                                 ÖPNV-Förderung durch das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemeindeverkehrsfinanzierungsgesetz">Gemeindeverkehrsfinanzierungsgesetz</ref> nicht
+                                 verstreichen zu lassen.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f33" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Doch das in Auftrag gegebene Gutachten kam
+                                 mit Präsentation am 23. September 2013 zu dem Ergebnis, dass die
+                                 Chancen, auf einen Nutzen-Kosten-Indikator von mindestens +1,0 zu
+                                 kommen, gering seien.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f34" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Pläne für den Weiterbau nach Stein wurden
+                                 darauf hin 2013 vorerst vom Verkehrsausschuss des Kreistages Fürth
+                                 zu den Akten gelegt.</s>
+                  <s>Kritisiert wurde dabei die Betrachtung der Rentabilität
+                                 der Strecke einzig auf den Neubauabschnitt von Stein nach
+                                 Röthenbach, nicht aber bis zum Plärrer in Nürnberg.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f35" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> U3 nach Zirndorf/Oberasbach </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der am 23. März 2010 von den Verantwortlichen
+                                 abgehaltenen Pressekonferenz wurde bekannt gegeben, dass es keine
+                                 Verlängerung der U3 in den Landkreis Fürth nach Oberasbach geben
+                                    wird.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f36" rend="ref"/>Laut Gutachten<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f37" rend="ref"/> erreicht weder die unterirdische Variante unter
+                                 der Rothenburger Straße bis <hi rend="it">Oberasbach Süd</hi> mit
+                                 einem Kosten-Nutzen-Faktor von 0,44 noch die oberirdische Variante
+                                 auf der ehemaligen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibertbahn">Bibertbahn</ref>-Trasse bis <hi rend="it">Oberasbach Nord</hi>
+                                 mit einem negativen Kosten-Nutzen-Faktor (−0,04) den vom
+                                 Gesetzgeber geforderten Wert von mindestens +1,0.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f36" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f38" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Kunst und Kultur </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AJakobinenstra%C3%9Fe-mosaik.jpg">mini|links|Geschichte des Schienenpersonennahverkehrs in
+                              Fürth, dargestellt in der U-Bahn-Station Jakobinenstraße</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ANuernberg-Hohe_Marter_U_1.JPG">mini|„Querliegender Fernsehturm“ als
+                              Fliesenmosaik in der Station Hohe Marter unweit des Funkturms</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AU-Bahnhof_Rathenauplatz_Z_1.jpg">mini|Reste der Stadtmauer an einem Durchgang im
+                              U-Bahnhof Rathenauplatz</ref> Das Fürther <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kom%C3%B6die">Komödianten</ref>-Duo <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volker_Hei%C3%9Fmann">Volker Heißmann</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Rassau">Martin Rassau</ref> dreht einmal monatlich die etwa vierminütige
+                           Glosse <hi rend="it">Wos sunst nu so woar</hi> für die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenschau">Frankenschau</ref> am ersten Sonntag des Monats im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayerisches_Fernsehen">Bayerischen Fernsehen</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Mit einer Handkamera pendelt das Filmteam in Zügen der U1
+                           zwischen den Bahnhöfen Eberhardshof und Fürth Rathaus.</s>
+                  <s>Die U-Bahn löste dabei den historischen Friseursalon im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_Industriekultur_%28N%C3%BCrnberg%29">Museum Industriekultur</ref> als Schauplatz der Handlung
+                              ab.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f39" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Anlässlich des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationaler_Frauentag">Internationalen Frauentages</ref> 2002 gestaltete die
+                           Nürnberger Künstlerin Rita Kriege einen <hi rend="it">Frauenkunstwagen</hi>,<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f40" rend="ref"/> der bis September 2002 im
+                           Linienbetrieb eingesetzt wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses in Kooperation von VAG und dem Arbeitskreis Frauen der
+                           Nürnberger Kulturläden entstandene Kunstprojekt sollte den U-Bahn-Wagen
+                           in einen „Wohlfühlraum“ umgestalten.</s>
+                  <s>Die Sitze eines Wagens wurden dazu weiß lackiert und das weiße
+                           Licht gegen farbige Lichter ersetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Der Übergang von dunkelblau über rot nach gelb sollte den
+                           Übergang von Nacht zu Tag symbolisieren.</s>
+                  <s>Am Wagenende wurde eine Zeichnung eines <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinth">Labyrinthes</ref> in Form einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojaburg">Trojaburg</ref> angebracht und mit Schwarzlicht bestrahlt.</s>
+                  <s>Zusätzlich wurde mit Spiegeln gearbeitet.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f41" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Nürnberger Produktionsfirma <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVA_Studios">AVA
+                              Studios</ref> und ihr Regisseur Alexander Diezinger<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f42" rend="ref"/> produzierten mehrere Musikvideos in der Nürnberger U-Bahn.</s>
+                  <s>Die Dreharbeiten für die Musikvideos zu <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declan_Galbraith">Declan Galbraiths</ref> Interpretationen von <hi rend="it">Nights in
+                              White Satin</hi>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f43" rend="ref"/> und <hi rend="it">David’s Song</hi>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f44" rend="ref"/> fanden im U-Bahnhof Ziegelstein statt.</s>
+                  <s>Das Musikvideo zum Lied <hi rend="it">Forever</hi> der
+                           belgischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trance_%28Musik%29">Tranceformation</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dee_Dee">Dee
+                              Dee</ref> wurde unter anderem in einem Zug der Baureihe DT2 sowie auf
+                           den U-Bahnhöfen Ziegelstein und Flughafen gedreht.</s>
+                  <s>In einigen Szenen wird eine Führerstandsmitfahrt auf einem Zug
+                           der Linie 2 gezeigt.<ptr target="WPD17.U01.96211-f45" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Weiterführende Informationen </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Siehe auch </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Literatur </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross"> Weblinks </head>
+               <head type="cross"> Offizielle Websites </head>
+               <head type="cross"> Private Websites </head>
+               <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LTE.MJB.00001">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LTE/MJB.00001 Bremer, J.-K.; Zorn, C.; Mathis, W: Bifurkationsanalyse eines LC Tank VCOs unter Berücksichtigung der variablen Kapazität. - Hannover, 2009 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Bremer, J.-K.; Zorn, C.; Mathis, W.</author>
+                  <title>Bifurkationsanalyse eines LC Tank VCOs unter Berücksichtigung der variablen Kapazität</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Hannover</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Leibniz Universität Hannover Leibniz Universität Hannover</publisher>
+                  <date when="2009">2009</date>
+                  <biblScope from="169" to="177" unit="page">169-177</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <head>Bifurkationsanalyse eines LC Tank VCOs unter Berücksichtigung der variablen Kapazität</head>
+            <byline>J.-K. Bremer, C. Zorn, and W. Mathis 
+                  Institut für Theoretische Elektrotechnik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Appelstr.
+                  9A, 30167 Hannover, Deutschland
+               </byline>
+            <div type="abstract">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>Zusammenfassung</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In dieser Arbeit präsentieren wir einen neuartigen Ansatz für den systematischen Entwurf von integrierten LC Tank VCO-Schaltungen basierend auf dem An-dronov Hopf Theorem und der Störungstheorie.</s>
+                  <s>Der Ansatz ermöglicht es, eine Abschätzung des resultierenden Ab-stimmbereichs, eine Stabilitätsanalyse und eine Berechnung der Amplitude des VCOs im Vorfeld des eigentlichen Entwurfs durchzuführen.</s>
+                  <s>Des Weiteren erlaubt die vorgestellte Methode eine Optimierung des VCOs hinsichtlich der in den Spezifikationen geforderte Amplitude und eine Minimierung der höheren Harmonischen.</s>
+                  <s>Mit Hilfe eines ladungsbasierten MOS-Modells ist es möglich die spannungsabhängige Kapazität der Varaktortransistoren durch einen analytischen Ausdruck zu beschreiben.</s>
+                  <s>Auf Basis dieses analytischen Ausdrucks wird die amplitudenabhängige Großsignalkapazität des VCOs in Abhängigkeit von Designparametern und der Tuningspannung modelliert.</s>
+                  <s>Die Gültigkeit der vorgestellte Entwurfsmethode wird anhand eines Beispielentwurfes eines 2.4 GHz VCO unter Verwendung einer 0.25 µm HF-CMOS Technologie verifiziert.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div n="1" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>1 Einleitung</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Durch steigende Frequenzen und immer komplexer werdende Modulationsverfahren wachsen die Anforderungen an die einzelnen Komponenten moderner HF Kommunikationssysteme.</s>
+                  <s>Dies hat zur Folge, dass die Spezifikationen die eine VCO, als einer der Basisblöcke moderner Kommunikatios-systeme, erfüllen muss immer schwerer zu realisieren sind.</s>
+                  <s>Im einzelnen sind dies die Realisierung der steigenden Frequenzen, ein großer Abstimmbereich aufgrund der steigenden Verbreitung von Breitbandapplikationen, eine niedrige Leistungsaufnahme und geringes Phasenrauschen.</s>
+                  <s>Des Weiteren muss der VCO hinsichtlich einer maximalen Amplitude optimiert werden, um die nachfolgende Mischerstufe zu treiben.</s>
+                  <s>Bei dem Entwurfsprozess von integrierten Oszillatorschaltungen handelt es sich um eine sehr komplexe Aufgabe, die stark erfahrungsbasiert ist.</s>
+                  <s>Deshalb wird ein systematischer Entwurfsprozess benötigt, der es ermöglicht vor der eigentlichen Schaltungssimulation mit einem Schaltungssimulator eine Abschätzung aller Designparameter durchzuführen.</s>
+                  <s>Basierend auf vorausgegangenen Arbeiten zur nichtlinearen Modellierung von Oszillatorschaltungen mit Hilfe des Andronov-Hopf Theorems (Mathis, 2005; präsentieren wir in dieser Arbeit einen neuartigen Ansatz für einen systematischen nichtlinearen Entwurfsprozess für spannungsgesteuerte Oszillatorschaltungen.</s>
+                  <s>Zur exakten Modellierung der sich im VCO einstellenden effektiven Grosssignalkapazität wurden in der Vergangenheit mehrere Ansätze veröffentlicht (Tie- Unser Ansatz ermöglicht es auf Basis des ladungsbasierten EKV MOS-Modells die spannungsabhängige Kapazität eines MOS-Transistors in schwacher und starker Inversion zu beschreiben.</s>
+                  <s>Mit diesem Modell ist es möglich eine Abschätzung der Varaktorabmessungen durchzuführen und den Abstimmbereich des VCOs im Vorfeld des Designs zu simulieren.</s>
+                  <s>Auf Basis dieses Kapazitätsmodells und der nichtlinearen Modellierung der einzelnen Schaltungskomponenten ist es möglich den VCO durch ein Differentialgleichungssystem zweiter Ordnung zu beschreiben, dass nur noch von Prozesspa-rametern und Designparametern abhängig ist.</s>
+                  <s>Mit Hilfe der Andronov-Hopf Bifurkationsanalyse wird das entstandene nichtlineare dynamische System auf die Existenz eines stabilen Grenzzykluses untersucht und so die Designparameter bestimmt, für die der VCO stabil schwingt.</s>
+                  <s>Mit Hilfe der Störungsrechnung ist es nun möglich, ausgehend von dem nichtlinearen dynamischen System das einen stabilen Grenz-zyklus besitzt, analytische Ausdrücke für die Frequenz und die Amplitude des VCOs herzuleiten.</s>
+                  <s>Der vorgestellte Ansatz zum systematischen Entwurf von spannungsgesteuerten Oszillatorschaltungen ist generell auf alle VCO Architekturen anwendbar.</s>
+                  <s>Aufgrund der hohen Verbreitung der LC Tank VCO Architektur wird der Ansatz in dieser Arbeit exemplarisch auf diese angewendet.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="170"/>Die Arbeit ist folgendermaßen gegliedert.</s>
+                  <s>Im zweiten Abschnitt wird ausgehend von der LC Tank VCO Architektur die nichtlineare Modellierung der einzelnen Komponenten aufgezeigt.</s>
+                  <s>Der dritte Abschnitt beschäftigt sich mit dem von uns entwickelten Ansatz zur Modellierung der effektiven Grosssignalkapazität im VCO in Abhängigkeit der Tan-kamplitude.</s>
+                  <s>Im vierten Abschnitt wird ausgehend von den Modellen der einzelnen Komponenten aus Abschnitt zwei ein äquivalentes Ersatzschaltbild für die VCO-Architektur eingeführt.</s>
+                  <s>In Abschnitt fünf wird das nichtlineare dynamische System in Abhängigkeit der Designparameter für einen LC Tank VCO aufgestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Abschnitt sechs zeigt die Anwendung der Andronov-Hopf Bifurkationsanalyse auf das nichtlineare dynamische System, gefolgt von der anschließenden Störungsrechnung, um die Amplitude und die Frequenz im Bifurkationspunkt zu bestimmen.</s>
+                  <s>Abschließend wird in Abschnitt sieben ein Beispielentwurf für einen 2,4 GHz VCO auf Basis des vorgestellten Entwurfsprozesses durchgeführt und die theoretischen Ergebnisse mit Cadence Simulationsergebnissen verglichen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div n="2" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>2 VCO Modellierung</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ausgehend von der in Abbildung 1 gezeigten stromgespeis-ten NMOS-only LC Tank VCO Topologie wird in diesem Abschnitt die nichtlineare Modellierung der einzelnen Schaltungskomponenten analysiert.</s>
+                  <s>Die Schaltung besteht aus zwei symmetrischen integrierten Spulen, aus zwei in Reihe geschalteten MOS-Varaktoren, dem kreuzgekoppelten Transistorpaar Widerstands und aus einer Stromquelle im Fuss-punkt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head rend="bold">
+                     <s>2.1 Spulenmodell</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In Standard-CMOS-Bibliotheken sind integrierte Spulen selten als Standardzellen enthalten, wie es z.B. bei Transistoren üblich ist.</s>
+                     <s>Deshalb wird ein Schaltungsmodell benötigt, dass über eine weiten Bereich von Layoutabmessungen und Pro-zessparametern skalierbar ist.</s>
+                     <s>Der Schlüssel zu einem physikalischen exakten Modell der integrierten Spulen ist es, die parasitären Widerstände und Kapazitäten zu berücksichtigen.</s>
+                     <s>Ein typisches Spulenmodell aus konzentrierten Bauelementen [Yue (2000)] ist in Abb. 2 dargestellt.</s>
+                     <s>R i,s repräsentiert den ohmschen Widerstand der Spule der sich aus der endlichen Leitfähigkeit des verwendeten Metalls und den auftretenden Wirbelstromeffekten ergibt.</s>
+                     <s>C i,s modelliert die kapazitive Kopplung zwischen den beiden Anschlüssen der Spule.</s>
+                     <s>C i,ox , R i,sub und C i,sub repräsentieren die parasitären Sub-strateffekte.</s>
+                     <s>Das Spulenmodell ist aufgrund der zusätzlichen Serienkapazität C ox für eine einfache Schaltungsanalyse zu kompliziert.</s>
+                     <s>Es ist daher sinnvoll, dass in Abb. 3 dargestellte vereinfachte Modell zu verwenden.</s>
+                     <s>Die frequenzabhängigen Ersatzgrößen R i,sup,p und C i,sup,p können durch die folgenden Ausdrücke berechnet werden [Yue (1998)] 
+              <gap instant="false"/>Ersetzt man den Serienwider stand R i,s durch einen äquivalenten Parallelwiderstand R i,p und nutzt die Symmetrie der VCO Topologie (Abb. 1) aus, so ist es möglich das Spulen-ersatzschaltbild in Abb. 4 zu erhalten, welches ausschließlich aus parallelgeschalteten Schaltungselementen besteht.</s>
+                     <s>Nachteil der vereinfachten Spulenmodelle ist, dass die berechnet Schaltungselemente nur für einen kleinen Frequenzbereich Gültigkeit besitzen.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <pb n="J.-K. Bremer et al.: Bifurkationsanalyse eines LC Tank VCOs"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head rend="bold">
+                     <s>2.2 MOS-Varaktor Modellierung</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Unser Modellierungsansatz beschränkt sich auf Inversion-Mode MOS Varaktoren, da diese im Gegensatz zu Akkumulation-Mode Varaktoren aus Standard-MOSFET-Zellen hergestellt werden.</s>
+                     <s>Im Falle eines NMOS Transistors werden der Sourceanschluss und der Drainanschluss kurzgeschlossen und der Bulkanschluss mit Masse verbunden.</s>
+                     <s>Dies führt dazu, dass der resultierende Inversion-Mode Varaktor nur noch im Verarmungsbereich betrieben wird und den Akkumulationsbereich nicht mehr erreicht.</s>
+                     <s>Wir modellieren den Inversion-Mode Varaktor als eine Parallelschaltung eines ohmschen Widerstands und einer nichtlinearen spannungsab-hängigen Kapazität C v (V GS , V tune )(siehe Abb. 5).</s>
+                     <s>Der Serienwiderstand eines Inversion-Mode MOS Varaktors R v, s setzt sich aus dem Gatewiderstand, den Kontaktwider-ständen zum Polysilizium und den Diffusionsgebieten und dem Widerstand des invertierten Kanals zusammen.</s>
+                     <s>Er lässt sich näherungsweise durch den folgenden Ausdruck bestimmen (Bunch, 2003) R v, s = 1 12 · 1 N · R ch, · L v W v + R poly, · W v L v . (3) Dabei bezeichnen R ch, den Schichtwiderstand der Inver-sionsschicht, R poly, den Polysilizium Schichtwiderstand und N die Anzahl der Gatefinger.</s>
+                     <s>Durch eine anschließende Reihen-Parallelwandlung lässt sich der Varaktorseri-enwiderstand R v, s in den äquivalenten Parallelwiderstand R v, p umrechnen.</s>
+                     <s>Um einen analytischen Ausdruck für die Kapazitäts-Spannungs-Charakteristik C v (V GS , V tune )eines Inversion-Mode MOS Varaktors zu erhalten, ist eine in schwacher und starker Inversion kontinuierliche Beschreibung der MOS-Kapazität erforderlich.</s>
+                     <s>Die häufig verwendeten, nur abschnittsweise gültigen MOS-Modelle sind für Ci,p Li,p Ri,p Ri,sub Ci,sub Rv,p Cv(vt, Vtune) diesen Zweck nicht brauchbar.</s>
+                     <s>Das EKV Transistormodell liefert eine gut geeignete analytische Interpolation für die MOS Kapazitäten in den geforderten Bereichen.</s>
+                     <s>Die einzelnen interpolierten intrinsischen MOS-Kapazitäten sind gegeben durch (Enz, 1995) C gs = C ox · 1 c gss (i f , i r )+ 1 c gsw (i f )− 1 (4) C gd = C ox · 1 c gss (i r , i f )+ 1 c gsw (i r )− 1 (5) C gb = C ox · n − 1 n · 1 − c gbs (i f , i r )· c gbw (i f , i r )c gbs (i f , i r )+ c gbw (i f , i r )(6) C bs = (n − 1) · C gs (7) 
+              <pb n="172"/>Kapazität [F] Gate-Source Spannung [V] C bd = (n − 1) · C gd . (8) i f und i r bezeichnen die Vorwärts- und Rückwärtskompo-nente des auf die Temperaturspannung normierten Drain-stroms und n entspricht dem so genannten “slope factor”.</s>
+                     <s>Die Ausdrücke c gss , c gsw , c gbs und c gbw bezeichnen die intrinsischen Kapazitäten in starker beziehungsweise schwacher Inversion (siehe Enz, 1995).</s>
+                     <s>Fasst man die fünf intrinsischen Kapazitäten zusammen C v (v t , V tune )= C gs + C gd + C gb + C bs + C bd (9) ist es möglich, eine gute Approximation der CV-Charakteristik eines Inversion-Mode Varaktors zu erhalten.</s>
+                     <s>Ein Vergleich der analytischen Näherung mit Spectre (Cadence DF) Simulationsergebnissen ist in Abb. 6 dargestellt.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="bold">2.3</hi>
+                        <hi rend="bold">Differentielles Transistorpaar</hi>Die nichtlineare Strom-Spannungs-Charakteristik eines kreuzgekoppelten MOS-Transistorpaares weist in einem gewissen Bereich eine negative Steigung auf und kann durch den in (Buonomo, 2004) veröffentlichten Zusammenhang effektiv beschrieben werden i d (v t )=          I bias 2 , v t &lt; − ν n √ 2 − I bias v t ν n r 1 − v t ν n 2 , − ν n √ 2 ≤ v t ≤ ν n √ 2 I bias 2 , v t &gt; ν n √ 2 (10) mit ν n = 2 s I bias L n µ n C ox W n . (11) Um eine möglichst genaue Abschätzung der resultierenden Gesamtkapazität des VCOs zu erhalten, müssen die parasitären Kapazitäten des differentiellen Transistorpaares mitberücksichtigt werden.</s>
+                     <s>Eine Näherung für die parasitären Kapazitäten eines kreuzgekoppelten NMOS-Paares ist in Hers- zu finden C NMOS, pair = 2C gd, n + 1 2 C gs, n + 1 2 C db, n . (12) Eine Berechnung der benötigten Transistorkapazitäten ist mit Hilfe der Formeln (4), (5) (8) und (4), (5) (8) möglich.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LTE.KFA.00002">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LTE/KFA.00002 Anders, Frauke; Koenig, Reinhard: Analyse und Generierung von Straßennetzwerken mittels graphenbasierter Methoden. - Weimar, 2011 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Anders, Frauke; Koenig, Reinhard</author>
+                  <title>Analyse und Generierung von Straßennetzwerken mittels graphenbasierter Methoden</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Weimar</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Bauhaus-Universität Weimar Bauhaus-Universität Weimar</publisher>
+                  <date when="2011">2011</date>
+                  <biblScope from="1" to="20" unit="page">1-20</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head rend="bold">1. Einleitung</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die hier beschriebenen Arbeiten und Ergebnisse sind im Rahmen des Forschungsprojektes CoMStAR 1 entstanden.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses von der DFG geförderte zweijährige Projekt befasste sich mit der Fragestellung einer sozial nachhaltigen Stadt- und Raumplanung.</s>
+                  <s>Aufgrund globaler Umstrukturierungen und Urbanisierung stehen Stadt- und Raumplanung vor der großen Herausforderung, nachhaltige Planungsstrategien anzubieten.</s>
+                  <s>Bisherige die Nachhaltigkeit fokussierende Entwicklungskonzepte wie z.B. Verdichtung, Mischnutzungen oder Polyzent-ralität resultieren vornehmlich aus ökonomischen und ökologischen Überlegungen.</s>
+                  <s>Das Ziel von CoMStAR bestand darin, die Wechselwirkungen zwischen räumlichen und sozialen Strukturen zu untersuchen und dadurch ein methodisches Instrumentarium zu Verfügung stellen, das die soziale Dimension der Nachhaltigkeit in der Planung zu berücksichtigen hilft, indem es eine Bewertung der aktuellen städtebaulichen Leitbilder hinsichtlich ihrer sozialen Nachhaltigkeit ermöglicht und darüber hinaus die Entwicklung neuartiger Pla-nungskonzepte erlaubt.</s>
+                  <s>Graphenbasierte Analyseverfahren sind für diese Fragestellungen die Grundlage.</s>
+                  <s>Unter Hinzunahme kleinräumiger empirischer Daten konnten Effekte der baulichen Struktur auf die räumliche Organisation der Bevölkerung und vice versa untersucht werden.</s>
+                  <s>In diesem Beitrag wird insbesondere die graphenbasierte Analyse des Straßennetzwerkes zur Erklärung der sozialräumlichen Gliederung der Bevölkerung einer Stadt beschrieben.</s>
+                  <s>Es werden computerbasierte Methoden dargestellt, die es erlauben, typische Kenngrößen eines Netzwerkes zu ermitteln und mit Daten zur sozialräumlichen Bevölkerungsstruktur zu korrelieren.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Studie und die Entwicklung der hierfür notwendigen Software wurden im ersten Schritt durchgeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse fließen im zweiten Schritt in eine generative Software ein, welche als Vorschlagssystem für nachhaltige stadtplanerische Entwürfe dient.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>2. Graphanalyse von Straßennetzwerken</s>
+               </head>
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>2.1.</s>
+                  <s>Grundlagen der Graphentheorie</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Topologie, d.h. die Nachbarschafts- bzw. Verbindungsstrukturen zwischen einzelnen Elementen, stellt neben der Geometrie einen Großteil der Information eines Satzes geografischer bzw. räumlicher Daten dar.</s>
+                  <s>Im Falle der zu untersuchenden Straßendaten sind topologische Eigenschaften des Netzwerkes ein wesentlicher Faktor, da nur diese Schlussfolgerungen über die Verbindungsmöglichkeiten, die Funktionsfähigkeit, die Ersatzwege, die 1 CoMStaR: Computer-based methods for socially sustainable urban and regional planning 
+              <pb n="3"/>Effizienz der Verbindungen und über weitere Merkmale der Organisationsstruktur eines Straßennetzwerks zulassen (Anders, 2007).</s>
+                  <s>Die topologischen Eigenschaften eines Straßennetzwerkes lassen sich hervorragend mittels Graphen darstellen.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Einführung in die Graphentheorie liefert u.a. Diestel (2005) und Jansen (2006).</s>
+                  <s>Topologien werden graphisch mit Knoten und Kanten dargestellt, wobei die Knoten (Nodes, Vertices) durch die Kanten (Edges) miteinander verbunden werden (Abb. 1).</s>
+                  <s>Graphdefinition nach Diestel (2005): Ein Graph ist ein Paar der disjunkten Mengen G = (V, E), so dass E ⊆ [V] 2 . Die Elemente von V sind die Knoten (Vertices V) von G, die Elemente von E sind die Kanten (Edges E) von G. 
+              <gap instant="false"/>Bei einem Graphen (im Sinne der Graphentheorie) kommt es nicht auf die Lage der Knoten und die Form der Kanten an (Abb. 1).</s>
+                  <s>Felsner (2003) führt zur Unterscheidung vom (topologischen) Graphen den geometrischen Graphen ein.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="italic">„Ein geometrischer Graph ist ein topologischer Graph dessen Kanten gradlinig sind, das heißt die Kanten sind Strecken zwischen den Endpunkten“</hi> (Felsner 2003).</s>
+                  <s>Wir nutzen in unseren Programmen einen ungerichteten Graphen.</s>
+                  <s>Dies bedeutet, dass die Richtung des Durchlaufs einer Kante von einem zum anderen Knoten keine Rolle spielt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Datenstruktur, mit der die Graphen repräsentiert werden, wird als doppelt verkettete Kan-tenliste (Halbkantenstruktur) aufgebaut.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der Halbkantenstruktur werden nicht Kanten, sondern Halbkanten gespeichert.</s>
+                  <s>Halbkanten sind gerichtet; zwei zusammengehörige Halbkanten (Paar) zeigen in die entgegengesetzte Richtung und bilden eine Kante.</s>
+                  <s>Jede Kante ist von genau zwei Facetten (zu jeder Halbkante gibt es eine entgegengesetzte Halbkante) umgeben (Abb. 2).</s>
+                  <s>Der Vorteil der Halbkantenstruktur besteht darin, dass viele (Such)Operationen in konstanter Zeit ausgeführt werden können.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="4"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>In der von uns entworfenen Graphklasse 3 werden zusätzlich zur Topologie auch die geometrischen Verhältnisse der räumlichen Daten gespeichert, d.h. die Lage der Elemente, die von den Knoten und Kanten repräsentiert werden, ist bekannt.</s>
+                  <s>Somit wird das Straßennetz in seiner Gesamtheit, d.h. mit seinen wesentlichen topologischen und geometrischen Eigenschaften, mittels der Datenstruktur der von uns entworfenen Graphklasse abgebildet.</s>
+                  <s>Wir verwenden dafür die einfachste Interpretationsform, in welcher die Kreuzungspunkte der Straßen die Knoten sind, die Straßensegmente selbst die Kanten darstellen (Abb. 3 Mitte).</s>
+                  <s>Dadurch entspricht die Veranschaulichung des Graphen einer üblichen Stadtkarte.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>2.2.</s>
+                  <s>Untersuchung der Straßennetzwerke</s>
+               </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LTE.MSA.00003">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LTE/MSA.00003 Mathis, S. Stegemann, W. John, and W.: Analyse der Störfestigkeit nichtlinearer Schaltungen gegen überleitungsgebundenen elektromagnetischen Störungen mit multi-input Wiener/Hammerstein-Modellen. - Hannover, 2012 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Stegemann S.; John W.; Mathis W.</author>
+                  <title>Analyse der Störfestigkeit nichtlinearer Schaltungen gegen überleitungsgebundenen elektromagnetischen Störungen mit multi-input Wiener/Hammerstein-Modellen</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Hannover</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Leibniz Universität Hannover Leibniz Universität Hannover</publisher>
+                  <date when="2012">2012</date>
+                  <biblScope from="187" to="192" unit="page">187-192</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="2" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">2 EMI-Blockmodell zu Untersuchung der Störbeeinflussung</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Aufgrund der nichtlinearen Übertragungscharakteristiken der Bauelemente einer Schaltung werden außer der Nutzfrequenz am Ausgang einer Schaltung durch StörEinflüsse weitere Spektralanteile auftreten.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Spektralanteile können sowohl harmonische Verzerrungen des Nutz- und des Störsignals (Frequenzvervielfachung) als auch Intermodulationen (Mischprodukte) dieser Eingangsanregungen sein.</s>
+                  <s>Diejenigen Effekte, welche die Signalübertragung eines Schaltungsblockes unter Störeinfluss am stärksten beeinflussen, sind die entstehenden Intermodulationsprodukte am Ausgang, welche innerhalb des Nutzbandes auftreten können.</s>
+                  <s>Da durch Intermodulationen zwischen Signal und Störung auch Signalanteile bei der Frequenz f = 0 Hz entstehen können (Wam-bacq et al. , 1998; Weiner and Spina, 1980), können aufgrund der einkoppelnden Störung auch die DC-Arbeitspunkte des Ausgangs und der Nachfolgenden Schaltungsblocke verschoben werden (sog. DC-Shift, vgl. Redout´e and Steyaert, 2010b; Loeckx, 2010).</s>
+                  <s>Bei der Untersuchung der Einflüsse von Störungen auf die Funktion einer Schaltung werden in 
+            <pb n="188"/>der Literatur dabei zumeist Störungen betrachtet, welche am nominellen Signaleingang einkoppeln (für Eingangsstufen s. z.B. Fiori, 2002; Redout´e and Steyaert, 2010a).</s>
+                  <s>Um die Frequenzabhängigkeit des Einflusses einer Störung an einem Nicht-Signaleingang auf eine nichtlineare Schaltung zu beschreiben, kann der Störpfad als lineare Übertragungsfunktion beschrieben werden.</s>
+                  <s>Beispielhaft soll die Differenzstu-fe nach Abb. 2 bei Störung der Spannungsversorgung U DD betrachtet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Störung u dis (t ), die der konstanten Versorgungsspannung überlagert ist, wird über den als Diode geschalteten Transistor T 5 sowie über den Stromspiegel T 3 und T 4 den Bias-Strom i 0 (t )des Differenz-Paares T 1 und T 2 verändern.</s>
+                  <s>Das Differenzpaar, bestehend aus den Transistoren T 1 und T 2 , bildet die nichtlineare Übertragungsfunktion der Gesamtschaltung.</s>
+                  <s>Der frequenzabhängige (dynamische) Einfluss von u dis (t )auf diese Nichtlinearität kann beschrieben werden durch die Übertragungsfunktion H dis (f dis ): H dis (f dis )= U gs,3 (f dis )U dis (f dis )(1) Aufgrund von Störungen der Versorgungsleitungen wird die Gate-Source-Spannung u gs,3 (t )von T 3 und damit der Strom i 0 (t )zeitabhängig.</s>
+                  <s>Die Ausgangsströme i 1 (t )und i 2 (t )werden aufgrund der nichtlinearen Übertragungscharakteristik Signalanteile von u dis (t )enthalten (vgl. Prinzip des Single-Balanced-Mixer).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Für eine vollständige Beschreibung aller Signalanteile, muss eine entsprechende Übertragungsfunktion H in auch für den Signalpfad aufgestellt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Die zu untersuchende Schaltung wird demnach in lineare, dynamische Blöcke und einen nichtlinearen Block mit zwei Eingängen aufgetrennt (s. Abb. 3).</s>
+                  <s>Die beiden linearen Blöcke sind dabei durch ihre Übertragungsfunktionen H in (f in )und H dis (f dis )vollständig beschrieben.</s>
+                  <s>Die Zwischengrößen ˜ x in und ˜ x dis für die gefilterten Eingangssignale x in (t )= ˆ X in cos(2πf in t )und x dis (t )= ˆ X dis cos(2πf dis t )ergeben sich zu: ˜ x in (t )= ˆ X in H in (f in )cos(2πf in t ), (2) ˜ x dis (t )= ˆ X dis H dis (f dis )cos(2πf dis t ). (3)  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Der Block H in stellt den Frequenzgang des Signalpfades und H dis den Frequenzgang des Störpfades dar (Stegemann,2011).</s>
+                  <s>Auf diese Weise ist es möglich, die Unterschiedlichen Übertragungscharakteristiken von Stör- und Eingangssignal zu berücksichtigen.</s>
+                  <s>Die zu untersuchunde Schaltung ist also in demjenigen Frequenzbereich am Störanfälligsten, in dem H dis (f dis )die größte Verstärkung aufweist.</s>
+                  <s>Im Folgenden soll der nichtlineare Block keine weitere Dynamik enthalten, so dass seine statische, zweidimensionale Kennlinie durch das folgende multivariates Polynom beschrieben werden kann: y(t )= N X i= 0 N −i X j = 0 a ij ˜ x i in (t )˜ x j dis (t )(4) Hierbei a ij die sog. Nichtlinearitätskoeffizienten (vgl. Wam-bacq et al. , 1998).</s>
+                  <s>Die Summen in Gl. (4) können wie folgt umgeschrieben werden: y(t )= a 00 + N X i= 0 a j 0 ˜ x j in (t )+ N X j = 0 a 0j ˜ x j dis (t )+ + N X k= 1 N X l= 1 a kl ˜ x k in (t )˜ x l dis (t )(5) Die ersten beiden Summen in Gl. (5) bestimmen ausschließlich Mischprodukte der an den Eingängen ˜ x in und ˜ x dis anliegenden Frequenzanteile.</s>
+                  <s>Die Intermodulationen zwischen Signal und Störung werden durch die letzte Summe 
+            <pb n="189"/>bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Mit Hilfe von Gl. (5) ergibt sich das äquivalente Blockmodell nach Abb. 4. Mit Hilfe dieser Blockstruktur können Einflüsse von Signal und Störung bezüglich der entstehenden Frequenzanteile im Ausgangssignal y(t) getrennt untersucht werden.</s>
+                  <s>Durch Nullsetzen einer der beiden Eingänge ˜ x oder ˜ x lässt sich das Modell in Abb. 4 auf ein klassisches Wiener/Hammerstein-Modell zurückführen, welches aus der Reihenschaltung eines linearen, dynamischen Blockes und e ines statischen nichtlinearen Blockes besteht.</s>
+                  <s>Die Störuntersuchung nichtlinearer Analogschaltungen mit Hilfe des in Abbildung 3 dargestellten Modells wird nun wie folgt durchgeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Zunächst werden die Übertragungsfunktionen H und H bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Diese können z.B. durch eine Kleinsignalanalyse für die im Arbeitspunkt linearisierte Schaltung für den Stör- bzw. den Signalpfad berechnet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Anhand des Frequenzganges des Störsignals wird derjenige Frequenzbereich identifiziert, in dem die Störungen die Signalübertragung der Schaltung am stärksten beeinflussen.</s>
+                  <s>Im zweiten Schritt wird die multivariate Funktion F (˜ x , ˜ x )des nichtlinearen Blockes bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Im folgenden Abschnitt wird diese Funktion mit Hilfe des Verfahrens der nichtlinearen Quellen bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Bei diesem Verfahren werden die Ströme und Spannungen gemäß der Annahmen zur Volterra-Analyse als additive Überlagerung der nichtlinearen Antworten verschiedener Ordnungen berechnet (s. z.B. (Maas , 2003), Kapitel 4).</s>
+                  <s>Mit Hilfe der Funktion F (˜ x , ˜ x )können für Eingangssignale x und x , die sich als Linearkombination von Sinus- und Kosinusfunktionen darstellen lassen, die Ausgangsamplitu-den an denjenigen Frequenzen bestimmt werden, die sich durch Intermodulationen zwischen Eingangs- und Störsignal ergeb en.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head rend="bold">
+                     <s>2.1 Charakterisierung der Nichtlinearität</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Da das dynamische Verhalten des Gesamtsystems nach Abb. 3 durch die Übertragungsfunktionen der linearen Blöcke H und H beschrieben sein soll, werden für die Berechnung des multivariablen Übertragungsverhaltens des nichtlinearen Blockes ausschließlich statische Elemente berücksichtigt.</s>
+                     <s>D.h.</s>
+                     <s>es werden nur lineare und nichtlineare Elemente mit Strom-Spannungsrelationen in Leitwertform i = f (u) und in Widerstandform u = f (i) berücksichtigt, die keine Abhängigkeiten von den zeitlichen Ableitungen der Strom-oder Spannungsverläufe aufweisen.</s>
+                     <s>Die Elemente in Leitwertform können Leitwerte oder gesteuerte Stromquellen sein.</s>
+                     <s>Die Elemente in Widerstandform können Widerstände, oder gesteuerte Spannungsquellen sein.</s>
+                     <s>Entsprechend der Beschreibung durch Volterra-Reihen kann jede Knotenpsannung u und jeder Zweigstrom i eines nichtlinearen Netzwerkes durch Überlagerung der Systemantworten der Ordnung n = 1...N approximiert werden (Schetzen , 1985).</s>
+                     <s>Für die Ströme und Spannungen eines Netzwerkes mit nichtlinearen Elementen gilt dann: i (t) ≈ X i (t), (6) u (t) ≈ X u (t).</s>
+                     <s>(7) Die Antworten i(t) und u (t) enthalten dabei ausschließlich Mischfrequenzen der Ordnung n (vgl. z.B. (Weiner and Spina , 1980)). Um das Ein-/Ausgangsverhalten einer nichtlinearen Schaltung zu beschreiben, werden die oben genannten nichtlinearen Elemente bei diesem Ansatz ersetzt durch lineare Elemente mit in Reihe, bzw. parallel geschalteten Quellen (Abb. 5).</s>
+                     <s>Die folgenden Berechnungen werden anhand eines nichtlinearen Elementes in Leitwertform dargestellt.</s>
+                     <s>Für nichtlineare Elemente in Widerstandform verlaufen die Berechnungen analog.</s>
+                     <s>Dabei wird angenommen, dass für die nichtlinearen Strom-Spannungsrelationen f (u) (und f (i)) analytische Ausdrücke vorliegen, so dass sie in Potenzreihen der Form: i (t) = X k u (t), (8) als Aussteuerungen um einen Arbeitspunkt entwickelt werden k önnen.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>Aufgrund der multilinearen Eigenschaften von Volterra-Operatoren führt die Skalierung jeder Quellengröße um 
+              <pb n="190"/>einen konstanten Faktor c in Gln. (6) und (7) zu einer Skalierung jeder Antwort der Ordnung n mit c n (Schetzen, 1985):i(t )= N X n= 1 c n i n (t ), (9) u(t )= N X n= 1 c n u n (t ). (10) Zusammen mit Gl. (8) ergibt sich für die Ströme der nichtlinearen Elemente: i(t )= N X n= 1 c n i n (t )= N X m= 1 k m u m (t )= N X m= 1 k m N X n= 1 c n u n (t )! m . (11) In (Schetzen, 1985) wurde gezeigt, dass die Antworten für jedes n bestimmt werden können, wenn die Summen in Gl. (11) ausgeschrieben und nach Potenzen von c sortiert werden.</s>
+                     <s>Die Antworten der Knotenspannungen und Zweigströme der Ordnung n eines nichtlinearen Elements können dann ausgedrückt werden durch die Überlagerung einer linearen Antwort und einer nichtlinearen f NL,n Antwort: i n (t )= g · u n (t )+ f NL,n (u 1 ,...,u n− 1 ). (12) Eine Stromkomponente n-ter Ordnung kann nach Gl. (12)durch einen linearen Leitwert mit dem Wert g = k 1 modelliert werden, an dem die Spannung u n (t )anliegt.</s>
+                     <s>Parallel zu diesem linearen Leitwert ist eine Stromquelle n-ter Ordnung mit i NL,n = f NL,n (u 1 ,...,u n− 1 )geschaltet.</s>
+                     <s>Der Wert dieser Stromquelle hängt dabei nur von den Antworten der Ordnungen kleiner als n ab.</s>
+                     <s>In Abb. 5 (b) ist die Modellierung nichtlinearer Leitwerte mit Hilfe der nichtlinearen Stromquellen i NL,n (t )dargestellt.</s>
+                     <s>Nichtlineare Elemente in Widerstandform werden durch in Reihe geschaltete Spannungsquellen modelliert (s. Abb. 5a).</s>
+                     <s>Mit den Gln. (11) und (12) ergeben sich die folgenden Ausdrücke für die nichtlinearen Stromquellen der Ordnungen n = 1...4: i NL,1 = 0 (13) i NL,2 = k 2 u 2 1 (14) i NL,3 = 2k 2 u 1 u 2 + k 2 u 3 1 (15) i NL,4 = k 2 (2u 1 u 3 + u 2 2 )+ 3k 3 u 2 1 u 2 + k 4 u 4 1 (16) Die hier verwendete Methode bietet den Vorteil, dass zur Berechnung der Antworten n-ter Ordnung ausschließlich lineare Netzwerke mit linearen Elementen berechnet werden müssen.</s>
+                     <s>Das nichtlineare Verhalten der Schaltung wird durch das Hinzufügen von nichtlinearen Quellen n-ter Ordnung modelliert (vgl. Abb. 6).</s>
+                     <s>Intermodulationsprodukte und harmonische Verzerrungen n-ter Ordnung werden dabei ausschließlich durch die Quellen u NL,n und i NL,n gebildet.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LTE.NOL.00004">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LTE/NOL.00004 Napp, O. Carlowitz, S. Meyer, M.: Lösemittelrückgewinnung im Verpackungsdruck – Stoffrecycling versus Verbrennung. - Aachen, 2015 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Carlowitz, O.; Meyer, S.; Napp, M.</author>
+                  <title>Lösemittelrückgewinnung im Verpackungsdruck</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Aachen</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Shaker</publisher>
+                  <date when="2015">2015</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="1" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">1 Ausgangssituation </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Zur Gewährleistung einer bestmöglichen Bildtiefe und -brillanz und damit hohen Qualitätsstandards werden heute im Rahmen der Herstellung flexibler Verpackungen bei Bedruckungsprozessen (Tiefdruck und Flexodruck) vorwiegend organische Lösemittel (hauptsächlich Ethylacetat und Ethanol) eingesetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Diese verdampfen nach dem Farbauftrag und werden zusammen mit angesaugter Umgebungsluft als Abgas (Abluft) einer nachgeschalteten Behandlungsanlage zugeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Ab Lösemittelmassenströmen von einer Tonne pro Stunde erweist es sich heute als wirtschaftlich tragfähig, die organischen Stoffe adsorptiv aus der Abluft zu entfernen, mit Wasserdampf zu desorbieren und zu kondensieren.</s>
+                  <s>Nach einer – bedingt durch die hohe Wasserfracht – aufwändigen Aufarbeitung ist dann ein erneuter Einsatz möglich.</s>
+                  <s>Unterhalb eines Lösemittelmassenstromes von 1 t/h ist bislang der Einsatz von sog. regenerativen thermischen Nachverbrennungsanlagen Stand der Technik, die die Lösemittel zu vorwiegend Kohlenstoffdioxid und Wasser oxidieren und damit detoxifizieren.</s>
+                  <s>Ziel der Autoren ist es, ein Rückgewinnungsverfahren für Lösemittelmassenströme von weniger als 1 t/h (Massenstrombereich 0,2…0,8 t/h) zu entwickeln, das einerseits für Betriebe des Verpackungsdruckes wirtschaftlich interessant ist und andererseits den Gesamtkohlenstoffdioxidausstoß deutlich verringert.</s>
+                  <s>Dabei ist zu berücksichtigen, dass die Herstellung eines Kilogramms von z. B. Ethylacetat knapp 2,9 kg CO 2 verursacht zuzüglich etwa 2 kg CO 2 bei der Oxidation in einer regenerativen thermischen Nachverbrennungsanlage, so dass im Falle einer Rückgewinnung der Lösemittel eine beträchtliche Absenkung des Kohlendioxidausstoßes zu erwarten ist.</s>
+                  <s>Um eine Rückgewinnung der freigesetzten organischen Lösemittel wirtschaftlich tragfähig zu gestalten, ist eine Aufkonzentration zwingend notwendig.</s>
+                  <s>Letzteres bedeutet, den hohen Abluftmengenstrom aus den Druckmaschinen mit relativ geringer Lösemittelbeladung in einem möglichst kleinen Gasmengenstrom mit hoher Beladung zu transformieren, so dass für die sich anschließende Kondensation der Lösemittel nicht zu niedrige Temperaturen und damit relativ kleine Energieeinsätze notwendig werden.</s>
+                  <s>Als klassisches Aufkonzentrationsverfahren wird heute die Adsorption der Lösemittel an Aktivkohle oder Zeolithe mit anschließender Wasserdampfdesorption [1] eingesetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings sind die verwendeten Lösemittel teilweise in Wasser löslich, so dass 
+            <pb/>sich eine aufwändige und energieintensive Aufarbeitung mit dem Ziel des Wiedereinsatzes anschließt.</s>
+                  <s>Alternativ kann eine Inertgasdesorption z. B. mit Stickstoff erwogen werden.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings benötigt man hierfür Temperaturen oberhalb von ca. 200 °C, verbunden mit der Gefahr der beschleunigten Zersetzung insbesondere von Ethylacetat zu Essigsäure durch Reaktion mit dem mit der Abluft eingetragenen Wasserdampf aus der im Druckprozess angesaugten Umgebungsluft.</s>
+                  <s>Auch können durch das Adsorbens (Aktivkohle, Zeolithe) katalytische Effekte wirksam werden, die den Zersetzungsvorgang begünstigen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Lösemittel sind dann nicht mehr (physikalisch) rückgewinnbar.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Ausweg besteht darin, anstelle eines ad- ein absorptives Aufkonzentrationsverfahren zu wählen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Abluft aus den Druckprozessen wird dabei mittels einer hochsiedenden Flüssigkeit gewaschen, wobei die organischen Lösemittel gebunden werden.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Vorgang erfolgt bei niedriger Temperatur (z. B. 20 °C).</s>
+                  <s>Die Desorption wird beispielsweise mit Stickstoff bei höherer Temperatur bis etwa 130 °C durchgeführt, so dass ein mit Lösemitteln hochaufkonzentrierter Gasstrom entsteht, der in eine Kondensation gelangt, so dass die Lösemittel in die flüssige Phase übergehen und nach einer einfachen Destillation und/oder Membrantrocknung wieder verwendet werden können.</s>
+                  <s>Da das Desorptionstemperaturniveau relativ zur Adsorption niedriger ist und katalytische Effekte im Hochsieder nicht zu besorgen sind, wird die Essigsäurebildung aus Ethylacetat stark unterdrückt.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings ist der beschriebene Rückgewinnungsprozess bislang nicht für die vorgesehene Anwendung entwickelt, so dass hieraus Forschungs-und Entwicklungspotenzial erwächst.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div n="2" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>2 Stand der Technik: Die regenerative thermische Oxidation (RTO) </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bild 1 zeigt die Einbindung einer regenerativen thermischen Oxidationsanlage in das Abluft- und Wärmenetz einer Druckerei, die flexible Verpackungen herstellt [2]. Emittenten, d. h. lösemittelhaltige Abluftmengenströme verursachende Produktionsanlagen, stellen zwei sog. Flexodruckmaschinen, eine Tiefdruckmaschine sowie eine Waschmaschine (für Druckwalzen etc.) dar, die in eine Sammelleitung einspeisen.</s>
+                  <s>(Für den Fall, dass die Abluftreinigungsanlage ausfällt, besteht aus sicherheitstechnischen Erwägungen die Möglichkeit der Abgabe der Abluft über einen Bypass.) Der gesammelte Abluftmengenstrom gelangt schließlich in die RTO-Anlage, die aus einem Umschaltklappensystem (1), den Regeneratoren A, B, C und dem darüber liegenden Brennraum (2) besteht.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Brenner (3) heizt das Gesamtsystem auf.</s>
+                  <s>Die Regeneratoren (Speicherbetten für Wärme) werden zyklisch umgeschaltet.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Regenerator wärmt die Abluft vor (Regenerator A), einer kühlt das gereinigte Gas bzw. Reingas (Regene-
+            <pb/>rator C) und ein Regenerator (Regenerator B) wird gespült, damit vor dem Umschalten von Abluft auf Reingas keine ungereinigten Bestandteile in das Reingas gelangen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Regeneratortechnik ermöglicht eine sehr hohe Vorwärmung der lösemittelhaltigen Abluft, so dass schon relativ geringe Lösemittelmassenströme ausreichen, eine Fahrweise ohne zusätzlichen Brennstoff zu ermöglichen (sog. autothermer Betrieb).</s>
+                  <s>Bei höheren Lösemittelfrachten kann ein Reingasteilstrom aus der Brennkammer ausgekoppelt werden (6), so dass Wärmeträger (Thermalöl (7) und Wasser (8)) zur Beheizung der Produktion bereitgestellt werden können.</s>
+                  <s>Wird darüber hinaus Produktionswärme benötigt, stehen sog. direkt befeuerte Wärmeerzeuger (10, 11) bereit, die zusätzlich Heizwärme einkoppeln können.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>Tabelle 1 vermittelt einen Eindruck zu den benötigten Einsatzstoffen und energien, den Betriebsmittelkosten sowie den Kohlendioxid-Äquivalenten einer RTO-Anlage für einen Abluftmengenstrom von 60.000 m n 3 /h.</s>
+                  <s>Es wird deutlich, dass der insgesamt erzeugte CO 2 -Massenstrom doch beträchtliche Ausmaße annimmt, so dass sich die Frage stellt, wie hoch die Reduktion durch eine Lösemittelrückgewinnung ausfällt.</s>
+                  <s>Aus Sicht eines produzierenden Unternehmens ist natürlich gleichermaßen zu ermitteln, inwiefern ein relevanter wirtschaftlicher Vorteil erzielbar ist.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div n="3" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>3 Der neue Technologieansatz: Lösemittelrückgewinnung mittels Hochsiederwäsche und Desorbatkondensation </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Den neuen Technologieansatz gibt Bild 2 wieder, wobei die Wärmeerzeugung für die Produktion separat erfolgen muss.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb/>Das Schema in Bild 2 entspricht dem derzeitigen Stand bei der Verfahrensentwicklung, die vorgesehene Gasturbine zur Bereitstellung elektrischer Energie sowie Prozesswärme zur Beheizung des Absorbates (Wärmeübertrager oberhalb der Desorptionskolonne (6), Einkopplung von Wärme W) wurde der Übersichtlichkeit halber nicht dargestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Gleiches gilt für die Lösemittelaufbereitung (LMA).</s>
+                  <s>Der neue Verfahrensansatz ist zunächst gekennzeichnet durch eine Abgaskühlung, zumal sich die Aufnahmefähigkeit des Absorbens (hier: Genosorb 1843 3 )bei sinkender Temperatur signifikant verbessert [5]. Es folgt eine neunstufige Wäsche (Wäscher 1 bis 3) und ein Demister (4).</s>
+                  <s>Die Zahl der Waschstufen resultiert aus einem F&amp;E-Projekt [5], das durch die Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt gefördert wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Im Rahmen dieses Projektes ist eine effiziente Waschstufe bzw. ein Absorber für Abluftbeladungen mit Lösemitteln bis zu etwa 8 g/m n ³, wie sie im Bereich des Flexo- bzw. Tiefdruckes auftreten, entwickelt und erprobt worden.</s>
+                  <s>Aus verfahrenstechnischer Sicht sind zwei Randbedingungen bedeutsam, die die Konzeption der Absorptions- bzw. Waschstufe bestimmen: 1. Durch die Zerstäubung des Absorbens soll eine möglichst große Oberfläche erzeugt werden, damit ein hoher Stoffstrom an Lösemitteln übertragen werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>2. Das erzeugte Tröpfchengrößenspektrum darf nicht soweit in den Feinstpartikelbereich hineinreichen, dass ein relevanter Absorbensmassenstrom im Reingas verbleibt.</s>
+                  <s>Einerseits entsteht dadurch eine zusätzliche, unerwünschte Emission, anderseits verringert der Absorbensverlust die wirtschaftliche Tragfähigkeit des Verfahrensansatzes, zumal das hier verwendete Absorbens Kosten in Höhe von ca. 15 € pro Liter verursacht [5]. Es wurde daher eine Druckzerstäubung, d.h. eine Zerstäubung ohne Sekundärmedium, gewählt.</s>
+                  <s>Weiter sollte eine Trägheitsabscheidung der mit dem abströmenden Gasstrom mitgerissenen Partikel im Demister (Pos. 4 in Bild 2) realisiert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Hierzu ist i. d. R. eine Beschleunigung des Gases aus der Wäscherstufe (hier auf ca. 10 m/s) notwendig, so dass die Tröpfchen bei Umlenkung nicht mehr der Strömung folgen können und abgeschieden werden.</s>
+                  <s>3 Produkt der Fa. Clariant 
+            <pb/>Um eine möglichst hohe Aufkonzentration des Absorbens erzielen zu können, ist eine Gegenstromführung von Abluft und Absorbens realisiert worden.</s>
+                  <s>Das Ergebnis dieser Überlegungen zeigt die in Bild 3 dargestellte Prinzipskizze des Absorbers.</s>
+                  <s>Auch konnte der Absorber relativ einfach charakterisiert werden, indem für den Stoffübergang im stationären Fall die Beziehung 𝑚̇ 𝐿𝑀 = 𝛽 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝛥𝑋 𝑚 , Gl. 1 mit 𝑚̇: Massenstrom 𝛽: Stoffübergangskoeffizient 𝐴: stoffübertragende Fläche 𝑋: Lösemittelkonzentration im Absorbens Index LM: Lösemittel (organisch) Index m: mittlere angesetzt wurde, wobei die Größe „ 𝛽 ∙ 𝐴“ Gl. 2 eine Konstante darstellt und durch Experimente ermittelt wurde.</s>
+                  <s>In Analogie zur Wärmeübertragung lässt sich eine mittlere Konzentrationsdifferenz mit 𝛥𝑋 𝑚 = 𝛥𝑋 𝑔𝑟𝑜ß −𝛥𝑋 𝑘𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑛(𝛥𝑋𝑔𝑟𝑜ß 𝛥𝑋𝑘𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑛 )Gl. 3 berechnen.</s>
+                  <s>𝛥𝑋 beschreibt jeweils (am Ein- und Austritt des Gegenstromstoffübertragers) den Abstand zum Gleichgewicht.</s>
+                  <s>Hier stellt sich die Frage, wie das Gleichgewicht beschrieben werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>Da zu erwarten ist, dass Genosorb 1843 im praktizierten Applikationsbereich lediglich bis etwa 10 g/L an Lösemitteln aufnimmt [5], ist von einer praktisch unendlichen Verdünnung auszugehen, so dass das Henry’sche Gesetz (mit guter Näherung) angesetzt werden kann: 𝑌 = 𝐻 ∙ 𝑋 Gl. 4 mit 𝐻: Henry-Koeffizient 𝑌: Lösemittelkonzentration im Abgas (in der Abluft) 
+            <pb/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>Unter Verwendung der v. g. Beziehung konnte ermittelt werden, dass durch die in Bild 2 skizzierte neunstufige Wäsche und ausreichend geringer Lösemittelkonzentration im regenerierten Absorbens ein Lösemittelabscheidegrad beispielsweise für Ethylacetat von  = 99,6 % erreicht und ein Emissionsgrenzwert von 50 mg/m n ³ an organisch gebundenem Kohlenstoff deutlich unterschritten werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>Während die Prozesstechnik der Absorption auch für die Abluftbeladungen des Verpackungsdruckes nunmehr weitgehend untersucht ist, stehen in Zukunft die Seite der Desorption und insbesondere die Lösemittelkondensation im Vordergrund, wozu ein separates Forschungsvorhaben geplant wird.</s>
+                  <s>Gleichwohl wurde eine Abschätzung des Aufwandes für die Schritte der Inertgasdesorption, der mehrstufigen Kondensation sowie der Lösemittelaufarbeitung (insbesondere Destillation) auf der Basis von Erfahrungswerten in anderen Branchen des industriellen Kooperationspartners AWS Group, Heilbronn vorgenommen.</s>
+                  <s>Der zugehörige verfahrenstechnische Ansatz ist im bereits zitierten Bild 2 dargestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Das Absorbat wird in einem Pufferbehälter (7) gesammelt, anschließend aufgeheizt und in einer Desorptionskolonne (6) im Gegenstrom zum Desorptionsfluid „Inertgas“ (Stickstoff) geführt.</s>
+                  <s>Das Desorbat gelangt in eine dreistufige Kondensationsstrecke (Stufen I bis III).</s>
+                  <s>Zunächst gilt es, das im Desorbat befindliche Genosorb für den Absorptionskreislauf zurückzugewinnen.</s>
+                  <s>Hierfür reicht ein Temperaturniveau von ca. 50 °C (Stufe I) aus.</s>
+                  <s>Anschließend wird der größte Teil des vom Absorbens aus der Umgebungsluft aufgenommenen Wassers (mit geringen Lösemittelanteilen) bis etwa 2 °C (Stufe II) abgeschieden.</s>
+                  <s>Schließlich erfolgt die Kon-
+            <pb/>densation der organischen Lösemittel bei Temperaturen von weniger als - 40 °C.</s>
+                  <s>Die Fraktionen aus den Stufen II und III gelangen in die bereits benannte Lösemittelaufarbeitung, woraus das Recyclat resultiert.</s>
+                  <s>Dies soll zur Einstellung der Viskosität der angelieferten Druckfarben dienen und damit den Lösemittelkreislauf schließen.</s>
+                  <s>Tabelle 2 vermittelt eine Übersicht zu den erwarteten Stoff- und Energieströmen, den Betriebsmittelkosten sowie den Kohlenstoffdioxidäquivalenten.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb/>Es wird deutlich, dass sich im Vergleich zum konventionellen Abluftverbrennungssystem deutliche Betriebsmittelkosteneinsparungen ergeben (knapp 169 €/h), die eine Amortisation einer Lösemittelrückgewinnungsanlage (einschließlich Wartung etc.) zwischen 3 und 4 Jahren (bei 6.000 Betriebsstunden pro Jahr) erwarten lassen, sofern eine Verbrennungsanlage ersetzt werden soll.</s>
+                  <s>Müsste ohnehin eine Abluftreinigungsanlage neu implementiert werden, würde sich die Differenzinvestition in 2 bis 3 Jahren rechnen.</s>
+                  <s>Darüber hinaus ist davon auszugehen, dass sich die Kohlenstoffdioxidemissionen durch Lösemittelrückgewinnung um (40 bis 50) % verringern.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div n="4" type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>4 Fazit </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein Vergleich zwischen der konventionellen Technologie der regenerativen thermischen Oxidation für lösemittelhaltige Abluftströme im Verpackungsdruck mit dem neuen Technologieansatz einer Aufkonzentration mittels Hochsiedern hat ergeben, dass  auch bei Lösemittelmassenströmen deutlich unter einer Tonne je Stunde ein wirtschaftlich tragfähiges Konzept möglich ist (Amortisationszeit 2 bis 4 Jahre)  die Gesamtkohlenstoffdioxidemissionen in erheblichem Umfang gesenkt werden können (40 bis 50) %.</s>
+                  <s>Somit lohnt die Weiterentwicklung des neuen Technologieansatzes bis zur technischen Reife.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LTE.WMA.00005">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LTE/WMA.00005 Weller, Marco Wilke und Michael G.: Affinitätschromatografie - Neues Trägermaterial aus Borosilikatglas. - Zug, 2019 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Wilke, Marco; Weller, Michael G.</author>
+                  <title>Affinitätschromatografie</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Zug</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Sigwerb Sigwerb</publisher>
+                  <date when="2019">2019</date>
+                  <biblScope from="16" to="17" unit="page">16-17</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Technology</classCode>
+            </textClass>
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+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bisher werden die meisten Antikörpertrennungen mittels Gel- oder Polymerphasen durchgeführt, die in Niederdrucksäulen aller Art gefüllt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Vorgehensweise hat jedoch einige Nachteile.</s>
+                  <s>So sind die meisten Phasen nicht sehr druckstabil und lassen daher nur geringe Flussraten zu.</s>
+                  <s>Dies führt zu sehr langen Trennzeiten, was unter Umständen sogar zu unerwünschten Abbaureaktionen (z. B. Proteolyse) führen kann.</s>
+                  <s>Zudem zeigen diese Säulen auch aufgrund von Inhomogenitäten des Säulenbetts, grossen Partikeldurchmessern und schlechter Diffusionskinetik breite Elutionspeaks mit ausgeprägtem Tailing, was zur Verdünnung der aufgereinigten Produkte führt, die dann anschliessend wieder aufkonzentriert werden müssen.</s>
+                  <s>Auch können solche Säulen typischerweise nur in einer Richtung betrieben werden, was sowohl die Reinigung erschwert, als auch besonders vorteilhafte Säulenschaltungen nicht zulässt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>Innovative Monolithen</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Um die Nachteile herkömmlicher Säulen zu umgehen, wurde an der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und prüfung (BAM) in Berlin in Kooperation mit der Knauer Wissenschaftlichen Geräte GmbH ein neuartiges Monolith-Material entwickelt, das sich als universelles Trägermaterial für die Affinitätschromatografie und viele weitere Anwendungen anbietet.</s>
+                  <s>Inzwischen wurden einige Modellanwendungen mit vielversprechenden Ergebnissen realisiert.</s>
+                  <s>Auch steht ein biokompatibles Halterungssystem auf der Basis eines Titan-/Polymer-Gehäuses zur Verfügung.</s>
+                  <s>Abbildung rechts oben zeigt eine Rasterelektronenmikroskop-Aufnahme des gesinterten Borosilikat-Monolithen mit seiner genormten Körnung, die ihm eine hohe Druckstabilität verleiht und dadurch hohe Flussraten zulässt.</s>
+                  <s>Der Monolithkern kann durch ein Kartuschensystem in wenigen Minuten ausgetauscht werden.</s>
+                  <s>Aufgrund der robusten physikalischen Eigenschaften und der chemisch stabilen Oberfläche, können die Säulen sehr oft regeneriert und so wiederverwendet werden, was einen solchen Austausch daher nur selten notwendig macht.</s>
+                  <s>Auch aus ökonomischer Sicht ist die häufige Wiederverwendbarkeit ein grosser Vorteil, da die meisten Bindeproteine sehr 
+            <pb n="17"/>teuer sind und eine hohe Regenerationsrate somit zu bemerkbaren Kosteneinsparungen führt.</s>
+                  <s>Durch die sehr schmale und hohe Peakform, die sich bei der Anwendung der Monolithen ergeben, werden Aufkonzentrierungsschritte oft überflüssig und bringen so einen weiteren ökonomischen Vorteil mit sich.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>Anwendungen in der Praxis</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der heute realisierten Form eines Monolithen (15 mm, Ø 8 mm, 750 µL Volumen) können insbesondere Antikörper für analytische beziehungsweise diagnostische Zwecke aufgereinigt werden.</s>
+                  <s>So können polyklonale Antiseren, monoklonale Antikörper in Zellkulturmedien oder rekombinante Antikörper auf einer monolithischen Protein-A-Säule in einem Schritt aufgereinigt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Um eine geeignete Viskosität und optimale Pufferbedingungen zu schaffen, sowie etwaige Adsorption zu minimieren, werden die Rohprodukte in einem geeigneten Bindepuffer verdünnt und filtriert.</s>
+                  <s>Nach einem kurzen Waschschritt wird mittels eines sauren Puffers die Elution des Reinprodukts eingeleitet.</s>
+                  <s>Der reine Antikörper verlässt die Säule in einem scharfen Peak.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Stabilisierung wird das Produkt üblicherweise auf einen neutralen pH eingestellt.</s>
+                  <s>In der Abbildung unten links ist deutlich zu sehen, dass konventionelle Säulen bei gleichem Injektionsvolumen breitere Peaks mit niedrigeren Konzentrationen liefern.</s>
+                  <s>Die Methode kann sowohl an Niederdruckanlagen (FPLC), aber dank der hohen Druckstabilität der Monolithen problemlos auch an HPLC-Geräten durchgeführt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Wird ein Autosampler und ein Fraktionssammler zur Hilfe genommen, können viele verschiedene Proben im Minutentakt schnell hintereinander aufgereinigt werden.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LHU.EHP.00001">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LHU/EHP.00001 Eldridge, Hannah Vandegrift: Philologie und interdisziplinäre Rahmenkonzepte. Eine Fallstudie, [Literaturwissenschaft]. - Berlin, 2011 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Eldridge, Hannah Vandegrift</author>
+                  <title>Philologie und interdisziplinäre Rahmenkonzepte</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Berlin</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Friedrich Schlegel Graduiertenschule für literaturwissenschaftliche Studien Friedrich Schlegel Graduiertenschule für literaturwissenschaftliche Studien</publisher>
+                  <date when="2011">2011</date>
+                  <biblScope from="211" to="219" unit="page">211-219</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
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+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Humanities</classCode>
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+               <person>
+                  <sex>F</sex>
+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
+               </person>
+            </particDesc>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>In diesem Beitrag wird der Begriff 
+            <hi rend="italic">Philologie</hi> in einem weiten Sinne gebraucht, und zwar als das Etablieren von Informationen oder Wissen über Texte, vor allem über literarische oder rhetorische Texte.</s>
+                  <s>Im vorliegenden Aufsatz wird nach dem Charakter der Resultate einer typischen literaturwissenschaftlichen Strategie gefragt.</s>
+                  <s>Literaturwissenschaftler entwickeln häufig einen konzeptuellen Bezugsrahmen für die Lektüre literarischer Werke in der Hoffnung, damit möglicherweise bisher unbeachtete Elemente des Werkes zu erhellen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Frage lautet nun, was für eine Entdeckung eine solche Erhellung ist.</s>
+                  <s>Gilt sie als philologische Entdeckung?</s>
+                  <s>Wenn nicht, gilt sie überhaupt als Entdeckung?</s>
+                  <s>Diese Fragen verästeln sich, wenn die Horizonte des Bezugsrahmens außerhalb der Grenzen der literaturwissenschaftlichen Disziplin liegen, etwa bei einem medialen, sprachwissenschaftlichen oder philosophischen Fokus.</s>
+                  <s>Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird das Problem der Grenzen der Philologie mit Hinsicht auf die interdisziplinäre Beziehung zwischen Literatur und Philosophie untersucht.</s>
+                  <s>Genauer gesagt geht es um die Beziehungen zwischen lyrischen Gedichten und dem Skepsisbegriff des amerikanischen Philosophen Stanley Cavell.</s>
+                  <s>Die These lautet, dass durch diesen Skepsisbegriff eine tiefe Affinität zwischen zwei scheinbar extrem disparaten Strömungen der deutschen Lyrik zutage tritt: nämlich zwischen der Lyrik des Biedermeier und der 
+            <pb n="212"/>Konkreten Poesie.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Affinität soll im genannten interdisziplinären Bezugsrahmen thesenartig umrissen werden, um Fragen der Art, Nützlichkeit und sogar Existenz einer solchen Entdeckung nachzugehen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Cavells nuancenreiche und höchst selbstreflexive Beschäftigung mit der Skepsis-Problematik lässt sich hier nur verkürzt darstellen.</s>
+                  <s>Im Vergleich zu Cavells erweitertem Skepsisverständnis bezeichnet Skepsis als philosophischer Begriff ein zum Prinzip des Denkens erhobenes Zweifeln an der Möglichkeit einer gesicherten Erkenntnis der Wahrheit oder Wirklichkeit, also etwa ein Zweifeln an der Existenz der Welt oder an der Menschlichkeit anderer Personen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Zweifel werden zum ersten Mal in der Moderne formuliert, genauer in Descartes‟ Rationalismus, dem zufolge sich universelle Grundsätze allein mit Hilfe des Verstandes aus Grundbegriffen erschließen lassen.</s>
+                  <s>Als Gegenentwurf dazu behaupten Vertreter des Empirismus wie Locke oder Hume die Möglichkeit wahrer Erkenntnisse aus der Sinneserfahrung, bis Kants kritische Philosophie dem Idealismus den Ausgangspunkt bot, 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="grc">noumenon</foreign>
+                     </hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="grc">phaenomenon</foreign>
+                     </hi> wieder zu vereinen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Der Skeptiker versteht diese Entwicklung als die richtige und einzig mögliche Beschreibung der Geschichte der Philosophie.</s>
+                  <s>Cavell dagegen bezeichnet diese Entwicklung als 
+            <quote>
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">„skepticism‟s interpretation of itself“</foreign>
+                     </quote>(
+            <title rend="italic">Disowning Knowledge</title> 
+                     4) und verweigert dieser kontingenten Selbst-Interpretation das Primat.</s>
+                  <s>Skepsis wird laut Cavell üblicherweise als die Entdeckung verstanden 
+            <hi rend="italic">,</hi>dass wir keine Gewissheit über unser Wissen auf der Basis unserer Sinne erlangen können, das heißt auf keiner menschlichen Basis.</s>
+                  <s>Cavell ist dagegen der Überzeugung, dass diese sogenannte Entdeckung nur Ausdruck eines tiefersitzenden Problems, nämlich der modernen Subjektivität, sei.</s>
+                  <s>Skepsis sei die Erscheinungsform einer radikaleren Verunsicherung des Menschen in Bezug auf seine Stellung in der Welt, die (unter anderem) von der Reformation, dem kopernikanischen Weltmodell und dem Untergang der feudalen Gesellschaftsordnung verursacht sei.</s>
+                  <s>Nach Cavell entstehen Unsicherheit und Zweifel – an der Welt oder am menschlichen Leben – also schon lange vor der philosophischen Selbstthematisierung der Skepsis und der damit einhergehenden erkenntnistheoretischen Verengung des Skepsisbegriffs.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Die durch den Skeptizismus aufgeworfenen Probleme können also nicht allein dadurch gelöst werden, dass Philosophen ihnen gründlich genug nachgehen.</s>
+                  <s>Selbst das Beharren des Skeptikers auf begrifflicher Exaktheit basiert auf einer grundlegenden Enttäuschung über die begrenzten Möglichkeiten menschlichen Wissens.</s>
+                  <s>Aus dieser Enttäuschung rühren Gefühle des Welt-Verlusts: Das menschliche Wissen hat sich als unfähig erwiesen, seinem Be-
+            <pb break="no" n="213"/>sitzer das Verhältnis zwischen Erkenntnis und Welt zu sichern.</s>
+                  <s>Auf diesen Verlust durch Verunsicherung folgt der Verwurf der unzulänglichen Welt als unheimlich oder unbillig.</s>
+                  <s>Die Reaktionen auf diese Verlustgefühle lassen sich drei (einander möglicherweise überschneidenden) Typen zuweisen, die jeweils eigenen Erscheinungsformen angehören, abhängig von dem Feld, auf dem sie auftreten (Philosophie, Literatur, Musik, Politik, Gesellschaft, Religion etc.).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Die unverkennbarste Reaktion bezeichnet Cavell schlicht als den Zweifel, der die Welt durch seine Insistenz auf Reinheit oder Strenge des Denkens zerstört.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Strenge ist Teil des Versuches, endgültig festzustellen, was menschliche Subjekte wissen oder nicht wissen können.</s>
+                  <s>(Man denke hier etwa an Descartes‟ Zweifel an der Eindeutigkeit seiner Sinne in den 
+            <title rend="italic">Meditationen</title>.) Paradoxerweise drückt sich dieser Zweifel oft (wie zum Teil bei Descartes) in einer Eitelkeit des Wissens aus: Der Skeptiker behauptet, besseres oder klareres, weniger verfälschtes Wissen als andere zu haben, gerade eben indem er sein Wissen limitiert.</s>
+                  <s>Durch diese Eitelkeit unterscheidet sich die Zweifelreaktion von dem zweiten möglichen Reaktionstypus, der Resignation beziehungsweise Ergebenheit in unser Schicksal als Unwissende und die damit einhergehende Aufgabe des ohnehin unerfüllbaren Wunsches, Wissen zu besitzen.</s>
+                  <s>(Cavell versteht die Metaphysik in ihren hermetischsten Momenten als eine solche Resignation, die alltägliches Wissen ignoriere und sich mit einem vagen Jenseits beschäftige.</s>
+                  <s>Ich füge dem Cavells nicht explizit formulierten Gedanken hinzu, dass eine solche Resignation sich auch in Form einer Verweigerung an der Teilnahme am öffentlichen Leben und einem Rückzug ins Private ausdrücken kann.) Zuletzt besteht noch die Möglichkeit anzuerkennen, dass es zum menschlichen Wesen gehört, nach Wissen zu streben, welches nicht zu erlangen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses Verlangen ist für Wesen, die sich ihres Selbst bewusst – also menschlich – sind, ebenso symptomatisch wie unvermeidlich.</s>
+                  <s>Die Anerkennung der Unmöglichkeit der Realisierung dieses Verlangens führt zur Auseinandersetzung mit jener sich selbst überfragenden Subjektivität und den Grundfiguren ihrer Denkweise.</s>
+                  <s>Diese dritte Reaktion ist es, die nach Cavell 
+            <quote>
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">„the truth of skepticism“</foreign>
+                     </quote>(
+            <title rend="italic">The Claim of Reason</title>) anerkennt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Das Thema der Anerkennung der Wahrheit von Skepsis bedürfte natürlich einer weiteren Erklärung, die im vorliegenden Rahmen nicht zu bewerkstelligen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Für den folgenden Vergleich zwischen der Lyrik des Biedermeier und der Konkreten Poesie unter dem Aspekt der Skepsis berücksichtigen wir nur die beiden ersten Reaktionen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese sind als ‚skeptisch„ einzustufen, zumal beide bemüht sind, die zentrale anthropologische Konstante, das Begehren nach unerreichbarem Wissen, auszuklammern: entweder indem sie das Erlan-
+            <pb break="no" n="214"/>gen eines absoluten, wenn auch eingeschränkten Wissen als möglich erachten, oder indem sie das Streben nach jeder Form von absolutem Wissen aufgeben.</s>
+                  <s>Eben dieses Verhältnis zur menschlichen Wissbegierde – sei es durch ‚selbstgefälliges„ Grenzziehen oder durch quietistische Resignationsgesten ausgedrückt – ist, so die These des vorliegenden Beitrags, den poetischen Programmen der Biedermeierzeit und der Konkreten Poesie gemeinsam.</s>
+                  <s>Und das, obwohl diese zwei Momente deutscher Lyrik in jeder Hinsicht weit auseinanderzuliegen scheinen.</s>
+                  <s>Das Biedermeier bezeichnet eine Epoche, die mit dem Etikett des Konservativen und der Traditionsverbundenheit versehen wird und durch den Rückzug vom politischen Leben charakterisiert ist; in der Kunst werden traditionelle Formen widerspruchslos übernommen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Konkrete Poesie hingegen versteht sich als avantgardistisch, politisch engagiert und auf der Suche nach einer radikalen neuen Form der Dichtung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Im Folgenden werden Lesarten von Gedichten dieser beiden Stilrichtungen einander beispielhaft gegenübergestellt und im Hinblick auf ihre jeweilige skeptische Haltung verglichen.</s>
+                  <s>Hierbei ist anzumerken, dass die behandelten Gedichte zwar als im Großen und Ganzen mit den poetischen Programmen der Gruppen beziehungsweise Epochen übereinstimmend (und so als stellenvertretend für sie) verstanden werden; es wird aber weder behauptet, die Interpretationen ließen sich auf das gesamte 
+            <hi rend="italic">Gedichtkorpus</hi> dieser Epochen übertragen, noch, die ästhetische Qualität der Produktionen beider Epochen sei damit beurteilt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>In seinem Aufsatz  
+                  
+            <title>„Was ich traure/weiß ich nicht: Kleines Andenken an Mörike“</title>
+                     <date instant="false">(2000)</date> 
+               , schildert W. G. Sebald das zweite Jahrzehnt des 19. Jahrhunderts als Zeit des Rückzugs und der Resignation nach den Umbrüchen der Jahrhundertwende.</s>
+                  <s>Die Dichter dieser Zeit gehörten 
+            <lb/>
+                     <quote rend="center indent">eine[r] Generation [an], die, eben noch gestreift vom Atem einer heroischen Zeit, sich anschickt, einzubiegen in die windstille Zone des Biedermeier, in der das bürgerliche Privatleben wichtiger ist als die Öffentlichkeit und der Gartenzaun als die Grenze gilt der sich selber als ein Universum verstehenden familiären Welt.</quote>
+                  </s>
+                  <quote rend="center indent">
+                     <s>
+                        <ref>(80)</ref>
+                     </s>
+                  </quote>
+                  <lb/>Zur Trennung der Dichtung von der politischen Welt kommt die Scheidung zwischen Dichtung und Philosophie hinzu, eben jener Bereiche, die sich in der Frühromantik programmatisch verbinden wollten. 
+          <s>Das Biedermeier lehnt jegliches Interesse an der Geschichtsphilosophie, an der Revolution, am Absoluten ab.</s>
+                  <s>(Zur Konventionalisierung der Lyrik im Biedermeier und ihrem Rück-
+            <pb break="no" n="215"/>zug von politischen Ansprüchen siehe auch  
+                  Herin 
+               ). Friedrich Rückerts Gedicht 
+            <title rend="italic">Ich bin der Welt abhanden gekommen</title> exemplifiziert diese Tendenz: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> Die Form des Gedichts ist so traditionell, dass sie beinahe hinter sich selbst zurücktritt: 3 Strophen, je 4 Zeilen, A/B/A/B-Reimschema.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Gedanke wird in der ersten Zeile eingeführt und dann im Laufe des Gedichts bekräftigt und entwickelt.</s>
+                  <s>Anders als man erwarten könnte, ist es nicht das lyrische Ich, das die Welt, sondern die Welt, die das lyrische Ich verloren hat.</s>
+                  <s>Das lyrische Ich postuliert die Gedanken eines anderen Agenten (hier: der Welt) und macht sich in der dritten Zeile der ersten Strophe sogar zum indirekten Objekt (
+            <quote>„von mir“</quote>).</s>
+                  <s>Seine grammatikalische Unterlegenheit wiederholt sich in den letzten zwei Zeilen der zweiten Strophe in der Bestätigung seiner Anfangsbehauptung: Die Welt kann mit Recht meinen, es sei gestorben, weil es tatsächlich der Welt, vielmehr dem Weltgetümmel gestorben ist.</s>
+                  <s>Erst in der vorletzten Zeile des Gedichts tritt Leben als Kontrapunkt zu diesem der Welt-Gestorbensein auf: Aber selbst dabei wird das Leben des lyrischen Ichs 
+            <quote>„allein in seinem Himmel“</quote> mit dem Ruhen auf dem Friedhof verglichen (
+            <quote>„ich […] ruh‟ in einem stillen Gebiet!“</quote>).</s>
+                  <s>Zwar wird die Idee des „Lebens“ in den letzten beiden Zeilen ausgeweitet, aber nicht auf eine Teilnahme am 
+            <quote>„Weltgetümmel“</quote>, sondern nur auf die Liebe und das Dichten des lyrischen Ichs.</s>
+                  <s>Die Vehemenz der Weltverweigerung (und die dazugehörige Verwerfung der in der Welt verbrachten Zeit) wird lesbar als Symptom der tiefgreifenden Welt-Enttäuschung – die Cavell als skeptisch bezeichnet.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Am Beispiel der Konkreten Poesie stellt sich die Haltung der Weltverweigerung noch deutlicher dar, jedoch in umgekehrter Richtung.</s>
+                  <s>Die Vertreter der Konkreten Poesie, die sich als Gruppe auffassten, haben ihre Ziele selbst ausführlich thematisiert.</s>
+                  <s>So hat etwa Eugen Gomringer in einer Reihe von Texten 
+            <pb n="216"/>zur Theorie der Konkreten Dichtung ein neues Sprachkonzept entworfen.</s>
+                  <s>Im Text 
+            <title>„vom vers zur konstellation“</title>, 1955 geschrieben, beschreibt er den 
+            <quote>„zeitcharakter der sprache“</quote> als einen der 
+            <quote>„schnelligkeit“</quote> und der Orientierung am Sichtbaren (im Wort „Zeitcharakter“ schwingt bereits mit, dass Konzepten wie ‚Epoche„ und Sprache selber etwas Zeitliches anhaftet).</s>
+                  <s>Dichtung hat nach Gomringer eine gesellschaftliche Funktion zu erfüllen (so heißt es auch 1960 in  
+                  
+            <title>„das gedicht als gebrauchsgegenstand“</title> 
+                  30f.</s>
+                  <s>), weswegen das Gedicht 
+            <quote>„überschaubar“</quote> werden muss.</s>
+                  <s>Die gesellschaftliche Funktion der Dichtung bestehe vor allem darin, einen vom Dichter gesetzten oder determinierten Spielraum zu erschließen: Damit soll der Dichter (beziehungsweise das Gedicht) den Lesern beibringen, wie man solche Spielräume sehen oder sogar erschaffen kann.</s>
+                  <s>So wird der Dichter ein wichtiger Lehrer der Gesellschaftsmitglieder, denn 
+            <quote>„dem wissen um die möglichkeiten des spiels kommt heute die gleiche bedeutung zu wie ehedem der kenntnis klassischer dichtersatzungen“</quote>(
+            <title>„zeitcharakter der sprache“</title> 
+                     16).</s>
+                  <s>Die Fähigkeit, sich mit den Möglichkeiten des Spiels zurechtzufinden, bringt Dichtung in Kontakt mit der Fähigkeit des Inder-Welt-Navigierens, im buchstäblichen Sinne.</s>
+                  <s>Denn die poetische Reduktion der Sprache im neuen Gedicht, für die Gomringer plädiert, soll 
+            <quote>„größere beweglichkeit und freiheit der mitteilung, die zu dem so allgemein wie möglich sein sollte [erzeugen], so wie es anweisungen auf flughäfen oder strassenverkehrzeichnungen sind“</quote>(
+            <title>„das gedicht als gebrauchsgegenstand“</title> 
+                     31).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Gomringers 
+            <quote>„Konstellation“</quote> (er lehnt das Wort „Gedicht“ ab) 
+            <title rend="italic">Wind</title> hält sich streng an diese Vorschriften: Das Wort „Wind“ erscheint viermal, und zwar so gedruckt, dass die Buchstaben aussehen, als wären sie in verschiedene Windrichtungen verweht.</s>
+                  <s>Da die Buchstaben alle gleich spationiert sind, wird die Aufmerksamkeit des Lesers (oder besser: des Aufnehmers) auf die visuellen Figuren gelenkt: Der vierfache Buchstabe „W“, oben und unten, erzeugt Symmetrie; der Buchstabe N erscheint dreimal hintereinander in der Mitte, jeweils von id/di umgeben.</s>
+                  <s>(Dadurch wird in einer möglicherweise unbewussten oder nicht intendierten Wiederkehr auch eine psychologische Dimension, der Begriff „id“, zweimal sichtbar.) Das Wort WIND wird also in seine Einzelteile zerlegt und neu angeordnet, um eine mögliche Bedeutung beziehungsweise Funktion visuell zu repräsentieren.</s>
+                  <s>Laut dem Programm der Konkreten Poesie entwickelt diese Art von Dichtung eine neue, bessere, klarere Sprache.</s>
+                  <s>Fragen der Hermeneutik, der Doppeldeutigkeit, der Nuancen, der Verständnisschwierigkeit werden ausgegrenzt.</s>
+                  <s>Wie das bessere (weil limitiertere) Wissen des Skeptikers, das zwar viel aufgibt, aber sich freut, endlich auf sicherem Boden zu stehen, nimmt Gomringers Vision der Sprache 
+            <pb n="217"/>stolz Abschied von den Unsicherheiten und dem falschen Verheißungen der früheren, komplizierteren Sprache.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
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+               <title>LHU/GJR.00002 Görbert, Johannes: Rephilologisierung und Entgrenzung. Zwei Perspektiven für die Reiseliteraturforschung, [Literaturwissenschaft]. - Berlin, 2011 [Extract]</title>
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+                  <author>Görbert, Johannes</author>
+                  <title>Rephilologisierung und Entgrenzung</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Berlin</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Friedrich Schlegel Graduiertenschule für literaturwissenschaftliche Studien Friedrich Schlegel Graduiertenschule für literaturwissenschaftliche Studien</publisher>
+                  <date when="2011">2011</date>
+                  <biblScope from="119" to="130" unit="page">119-130</biblScope>
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+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Das Urteil der historischen Reiseforschung fällt dementsprechend kritisch aus.</s>
+                  <s>Beatrix Langner etwa, die Verfasserin der jüngsten und fundiertesten Chamisso-Biografie, bezeichnet die Expedition als 
+            <quote>„eine der merkwürdigsten Entdeckungsreisen des 19. Jahrhunderts … Ihr Vorwand fadenscheinig, ihr Kurs eine krumme Linie aus Lügen, Kompromissen und Missverständnissen, ein Täuschungsmanöver für die Öffentlichkeit“ 
+              <ref>(229)</ref>
+                     </quote>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Was macht diese so ambivalente Reise nun für eine philologisch 
+            <hi rend="italic">und</hi> kulturwissenschaftlich ausgerichtete Literaturwissenschaft interessant?</s>
+                  <s>Und inwieweit lässt sich der Begriff der Schwelle als Metapher und Denkfigur ins Feld führen, um die Materialien der Weltumsegelung in Text, Bild und Artefakt auszuwerten?</s>
+                  <s>Beides lässt sich hier nur knapp umreißen.</s>
+                  <s>Der Weg zu einer ersten Antwort eröffnet sich über eine Passage zu Beginn des dritten Abschnitts von Chamissos literarischer Reisebeschreibung.</s>
+                  <s>In dieser Textstelle gebraucht der Autor selbst den Begriff der Schwelle, um seiner, wie es im Titel des Kapitels heißt, 
+            <quote>„Vorfreude“</quote> über die bevorstehende Ausfahrt Ausdruck zu verleihen.</s>
+                  <s>Chamisso schreibt: 
+            <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb n="122"/>Chamisso schreibt diese Zeilen 1836, nur zwei Jahre vor seinem Tod und ganze zwei Dekaden nach der drei Jahre währenden Weltumsegelung.</s>
+                  <s>Verortungen wie 
+            <quote>„an der Schwelle“</quote> spielen dabei hier wie in seinem schriftstellerischen Werk allgemein eine wichtige Rolle.</s>
+                  <s>Um den zentralen Stellenwert der Reise für den Autobiografen zu pointieren, setzt der Textausschnitt gleich mehrere Arten von Übergangsmotiven miteinander in Beziehung: Sozialisationsgeschichtlich die Entwicklung vom Kindheits- zum Erwachsenenalter beziehungsweise von Ledig- zum Verheiratetsein, mental-psychisch das Umschlagen vom Traum- in den Wachzustand, textgenealogisch den Schritt von der fiktionalen Komposition einer Weltreise in der märchenhaften Erzählung von Peter Schlemihl zur faktualen Realisation in der Teilnahme an der empirischen Forschungsexpedition, literarisch-formal die Dichotomie von Poesie und Prosa, ja sogar pekuniär das Gegensatzpaar von Geldgewinn und Geldverlust.</s>
+                  <s>Im Anschluss an diese Kontraästhetik thematisiert der letzte Satz des Zitats bereits das Territorium, das sich dem Protagonisten hinter der Schwelle eröffnet: Die Zuwendung zur 
+            <quote>„offenen Welt“</quote>, verbunden mit der Emphase eines wissenschaftlichen Zugriffs auf die 
+            <quote>„geliebte Natur“</quote>.</s>
+                  <s>Latent, aber bereits auffällig, artikuliert der Beginn des dritten Reisekapitels einen weiteren bedeutenden Motivstrang: Die Bewegung von 
+            <quote>„überschwänglicher“</quote> Verheißung zu 
+            <quote>„gemeiner“</quote> Verwirklichung in der Vita des Reisenden.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Textelemente rund um die Figur der 
+            <quote>„Schwelle“</quote> ergeben alles in allem bereits wichtige Bausteine für Chamissos Selbststilisierung in literarischer Form, für die seine Reisebeschreibung den maßgeblichen Textzeugen abgibt.</s>
+                  <s>Um die Charakteristika dieser Inszenierung der eigenen Identität als Autor, Erzähler und Figur im Text möglichst präzise zu fassen, bietet sich ein Rückgriff auf das Instrumentarium an, welches die philologische Forschung für die Analyse von autobiografischen und nichtfiktionalen Gattungen der Literatur entwickelt hat (vgl. dazu einführend  
+                  Wagner-Egelhaaf 
+               ).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Der Reihe nach.</s>
+                  <s>Ehe Chamisso mit der Darstellung seiner Reiseerlebnisse in chronologischer Abfolge beginnt, geht er in zwei Abschnitten auf die Programmatik seines Berichts ein.</s>
+                  <s>Im ersten Kapitel 
+            <hi rend="italic">Vorwortlich</hi> erläutert er seine Beweggründe für die Niederschrift des Reiseberichts, den Fokus und die Situation seines Schreibens; im zweiten Kapitel 
+            <hi rend="italic">Einleitend</hi> liefert er einen kurzen Abriss seines Lebenslaufes von seiner Herkunft und Geburt an bis zum Zeitpunkt seiner Bewerbung für die 
+            <hi rend="italic">Rurik</hi>-Expedition.</s>
+                  <s>In beiden Textabschnit-
+            <pb break="no" n="123"/>ten hält sich der schreibende Reisende an Konventionen, die ihm sein Genre vorgibt.</s>
+                  <s>Gleich mit seinen ersten Worten beteuert Chamisso die Wahrheit und Wahrhaftigkeit, die Authentizität und Aufrichtigkeit seiner Zeilen.</s>
+                  <s>Ist die offizielle Dokumentation der Reise von 1821 in seinem Urteil noch entstellt von 
+            <quote>„Errata“, „unzähligen sinnzerstörenden Druckfehlern“, „Verfälschungen“</quote> und 
+            <quote>„Unverständlichkeiten“</quote> sowie überschattet von den historischen Wirren nach der Ermordung August von Kotzebues im Jahre 1819, so liefert sein Text nun das, was 
+            <quote>„ein gradsinniger Mann, der selbst gesehen und geforscht, in der Kürze aufgezeichnet hat“</quote>, und diese Arbeit, so Chamisso, 
+            <quote>„verdient doch wohl, in dem Archive der Wissenschaft niedergelegt zu werden“</quote>(
+            <title rend="italic">Reise um die Welt</title> 
+                     83f.). Mit seiner Betonung der Autopsie, des Selbst-Erlebten und Selbst-Niedergeschriebenen seiner Reiseeindrücke, verwendet Chamisso einen weiteren lang etablierten Topos der Gattung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Einen anderen Anspruch aber weist er weit von sich.</s>
+                  <s>Anders als Autoren auf ähnlichen Expeditionen möchte er in seiner Erzählung keine Synthese zwischen wissenschaftlichen und literarischen Schreibweisen wagen.</s>
+                  <s>Chamisso formuliert seine Ablehnung in Form eines Ratschlags an Freunde: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> In Chamissos Textpraxis findet sich diese angestrebte Zweiteilung realisiert, wenn auch in umgekehrter Folge: Seine 
+            <title rend="italic">Bemerkungen und Ansichten</title> von 1821 bilden den dritten Teil der offiziellen, wissenschaftlichen Auswertung der Reise, während der mit dem Titel 
+            <title rend="italic">Tagebuch</title> überschriebene literarische Reisebericht erst 15 Jahre später erscheint.</s>
+                  <s>Ob Chamisso die anvisierte Zweiteilung zwischen Literatur und Wissenschaft tatsächlich durchhält, bleibt fragwürdig.</s>
+                  <s>Mit der annoncierten schärferen Abgrenzung beider Bereiche bewegt er sich jedenfalls im breiten Konsens mit dem Gattungsspektrum, das sich im Verlauf des 19. Jahrhunderts immer weiter ausdifferenziert.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Gegen Ende des ersten und mit Beginn des zweiten Kapitels entfaltet Chamisso außerdem zwei Motivstränge, welche seinen Reisebericht weniger in Richtung der Theorie und Geschichte der Reiseliteratur typisieren als ihn 
+            <pb n="124"/>vielmehr auf seine außergewöhnliche Biografie hin individualisieren.</s>
+                  <s>Als Erstes hebt Chamisso in der Modellierung seiner eigenen Person an mehreren Stellen die 
+            <quote>„Macht der Zeit“</quote> gegenüber dem Einzelnen hervor.</s>
+                  <s>In einer Epoche zwischen Revolution und Restauration, Reform und Repression, nicht enden wollenden Kriegen und aufziehenden Nationalismen entwirft Chamisso sich selbst in der lebensweltlichen Skizze seines Reiseberichts als eine von Schicksal, Fortuna und Zufall nach allen Richtungen geschleuderte Autor-Persona.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <quote>„Nach manchen Irrfahrten … und nach manchem erduldeten Elend ward meine Familie zuletzt nach Preußen verschlagen“ </quote>(
+            <title rend="italic">Reise um die Welt</title> 
+                     86), heißt es darin, oder an einer anderen Stelle: 
+            <quote>„Irr an mir selber, ohne Stand und Geschäft, gebeugt, zerknickt, verbrachte ich in Berlin die düstere Zeit“ 
+              <ref>(87)</ref>
+                     </quote>.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/> Auch Chamissos bekannteste literarische Figur, Peter Schlemihl, gerät bekanntlich in eine ähnlich solitäre Lage: Von der Gesellschaft aufgrund seiner Schattenlosigkeit geächtet, flüchtet er sich in eine abgeschottete Existenz als Naturforscher.</s>
+                  <s>Fern von jedweden menschlichen Beziehungen nimmt er schließlich seinen Wohnsitz in der Felswüste bei Theben, in deren Höhlen sich christliche Eremiten schon viele Jahrhunderte vor ihm ansiedelten.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Zur Schwelle der Einsamkeit tritt als zweites zentrales Moment der Autobiografie die Schwelle des Lebensabends.</s>
+                  <s>Nicht von ungefähr beendet Chamisso seine Vorrede mit dem Hinweis auf den eigenen physischen und psychischen Verfall: 
+            <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb n="125"/>Was für die biografische Zeit dieser Niederschrift medizinisch belegbar ist, bildet gleichzeitig einen der Endpunkte in einer langen und erstaunlich früh begonnenen Kette von Selbstzuschreibungen des Alterungsprozesses: Sobald Chamisso mit seiner Hinwendung zur Naturwissenschaft die Richtung in seiner Biografie einschlägt, der er bis zu seinem Lebensende treu bleiben wird, häufen sich die Rekurse auf den vermeintlichen Greisenstatus in seinen Schriften.</s>
+                  <s>Im 
+            <hi rend="italic">Schlemihl</hi> treibt Chamisso die literarische Ausgestaltung des eigenen Niedergangs auf die Spitze; mit einer Passage, in der er die mit ihm namensidentische Schriftstellerfigur als Leiche auftreten lässt, umgeben von den Insignien ihrer wissenschaftlichen und künstlerischen Autorschaft: Bänden von Goethe und Haller, Humboldt und Linné, Fouqués Ritterroman 
+            <title rend="italic">Der Zauberring</title>sowie einem Skelett und getrockneten Pflanzen.</s>
+                  <s>Beide Hinweise, auf die Vereinsamung und das Ableben der Werk-Persona, hängen eng miteinander zusammen.</s>
+                  <s>Letztendlich entkommt der 
+            <quote>„allgewalt‟gen Zeit“</quote> nur, wer sich auf den allerengsten Kreis seiner selbst zurückzieht und anspruchslos dem eigenen Ende entgegenblickt (vgl.  
+                  von Matt 
+                  177 
+               ). Dass es sich dabei nicht um Abbildungen historischer Wahrheitsgehalte, sondern um Konstruktionsprinzipien autobiografischer Selbstinszenierung handelt, erhellt die philologische Perspektive – und das mit Hilfe ihres Wissens über allgemeine Gattungsregeln und autorspezifische Akzentsetzungen quer durch Chamissos belletristisches Gesamtwerk.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Chamissos Reise- und Schreibpraxis allein auf das Literarische zu beschränken hieße jedoch, seine Texte in ein zu schmales Korsett zu zwängen.</s>
+                  <s>Seine Berichte über die 
+            <hi rend="italic">Rurik</hi>-Expedition markieren nicht nur die Zusammenführung der bei ihm besonders starken Motive von Entwurzelung und Bejahrtheit mit Topoi von Authentizität und Autopsie.</s>
+                  <s>Chamissos Texte geben ebenso Auskunft über kulturelle Konzepte, die sich erst über eine zweite, diskurshistorisch und kontextorientierte Herangehensweise erschließen.</s>
+                  <s>Paradigmatisch hierfür steht seine Auseinandersetzung mit dem Konzept der 
+            <hi rend="italic">Generation</hi>, das ihn einmal mehr als Figur des Übergangs ausweist, dieses Mal auf dem Gebiet der modernen Naturwissenschaften.</s>
+                  <s>Bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts konkurrieren dort zwei diametral entgegengesetzte Modelle miteinander: Auf der einen Seite die aus früheren Epochen tradierten Konzepte der Idealgenese, welche die Arten des Tier- und Pflanzenreichs in Konstanz und Invarianz sowie in einer aufsteigenden Reihe vom Einfachen zum Komplexen, mit dem Menschen als Krone von Gottes Schöpfung ordnen, auf der anderen Seite die zunehmend einflussreichen Vorstellungen der Realgenese, welche die botanischen und zoologischen Entwicklungen aus empirischen Prozessen der Verer-
+            <pb break="no" n="126"/>bung und als Anpassung von Organismen an ihre Umwelt beschreiben (vgl.  
+                  Graczyk 
+                  308-313 
+               ). Chamissos Beitrag zu dieser Debatte situiert sich auf dem Spezialgebiet der Algologie.</s>
+                  <s>Gemeinsam mit Eschscholtz entdeckt er auf der Fahrt von Plymouth nach Teneriffa acht neue Arten der Salpen, wirbellosen Manteltieren, die sich von Plankton ernähren, zum größten Teil aus ihrem Kiemendarm bestehen, sich in langen Ketten an der Meeresoberfläche bewegen und weniger als zehn Zentimeter an Länge messen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Auf die entscheidende Beobachtung bei seinen Forschungen geht Chamisso im fünften Kapitel seiner Reisebeschreibung genauer ein.</s>
+                  <s>Dort heißt es: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> Was Chamisso mit dieser Passage exponiert, gehört seitdem zum Standardwissen der Biologie.</s>
+                  <s>Der Generationswechsel der Salpen erfolgt durch Metagenese: Auf die erste Generation, die sich ungeschlechtlich durch Teilung vermehrt, folgt die zweite, die sich geschlechtlich durch Paarung fortpflanzt.</s>
+                  <s>44 Jahre vor Darwins  
+                  
+            <title rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">On the Origin of Species</foreign>
+                     </title>
+                     <date instant="false">(1859)</date> 
+                erbringen die naturkundlichen Forschungen der 
+            <hi rend="italic">Rurik</hi>-Expedition eine Erkenntnis, durch welche ahistorisch-taxonomische Theorien der Naturgeschichte wie zum Beispiel Linnés Sexualtheorien in arge Erklärungsnot geraten.</s>
+                  <s>Nicht von ungefähr bezeichnet Darwin selbst Chamisso im 20. Kapitel seines eigenen Reiseberichts  
+                  
+            <title rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">The Voyage of the Beagle</foreign>
+                     </title>
+                     <date instant="false">(1839)</date> 
+                als einen 
+            <quote>„justly distinguished naturalist“ 
+              <ref>(340)</ref>
+                     </quote>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Doch bleibt die Denkfigur des Generationenwechsels nicht auf das Gebiet der Biologie beschränkt.</s>
+                  <s>Wie Ohad Parnes überzeugend herausgearbeitet hat, kennt die Zeit um 1800 den Begriff parallel in vielen sich überlappenden Wis-
+            <pb break="no" n="127"/>sensgebieten: in den Naturwissenschaften genauso wie in Philosophie, Geschichts- und Gesellschaftswissenschaften – und ebenfalls in der Literatur (vgl.  
+                  127-142 
+               ). Auf die interdependente Konstituierung der Rede vom Wechsel der Generationen verweist bei Chamisso die uns heute merkwürdige erscheinende Textstelle von den Jungtieren der Salpen 
+            <quote>„in der zusammen aufgewachsenen Republik“</quote>.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Passage wird klarer, sobald man sie vor der Hintergrundfolie von Edmund Burkes Bemerkungen zur Abfolge von Generationen in seinen  
+                  
+            <title rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">Reflections on the Revolution in France </foreign>
+                     </title>
+                     <date instant="false">(1790)</date> 
+                liest.</s>
+                  <s>Burke begreift die Weitergabe von materiellen und ideellen Gütern von einer Generation zur nächsten als 
+            <hi rend="italic">den</hi> Garanten von Stabilität und Kontinuität innerhalb eines Staats- und Gesellschaftswesens.</s>
+                  <s>Sobald dieses evolutionäre Konzept aufgebrochen wird, zerfällt jegliche soziale Ordnung, was Burke im epochalen Ereignis der Französischen Revolution bestätigt sieht.</s>
+                  <s>Der Begriff der „Generation“ dient ihm in seinen Überlegungen gerade nicht wie der evolutionstheoretischen Naturwissenschaft als dynamisierendes, sondern vielmehr als stabilisierendes Element.</s>
+                  <s>Es verbürgt, dass die Politik 
+            <quote>„im richtigen Verhältnis und vollkommenen Ebenmaß mit der Ordnung der Welt und mit den Gesetzen steht, die der Existenz einer bleibenden Masse, gebildet aus vorübergehenden Teilen, vorgeschrieben sind“ </quote>(Burke 
+                     94).</s>
+                  <s>Chamisso nun überträgt dieses Prinzip der sozialen Kohäsion eines Staatswesens auf die biologische Organisation der Salpen.</s>
+                  <s>Bei ihm erscheinen die Generationen der Meerestiere ähnlich wie bei Burke als Gruppierung in einer Republik, angeordnet nach einem quasipolitischen System.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Dass sich der empirische Naturforscher dem Staatsphilosophen in seiner traditionsgebundenen Begrifflichkeit so weit annähert, überrascht und hat doch seinen Grund.</s>
+                  <s>Wie Burke die Umsturzbewegung in Frankreich entschieden ablehnt, bleibt Chamisso paradoxerweise zeit seines Lebens eng dem traditionellen Blick auf die Natur verbunden.</s>
+                  <s>Ähnlich wie vor ihm wissenschaftlich-literarische Autoren wie Goethe und Alexander von Humboldt gibt der Weltreisende das ideengeschichtliche Konstrukt einer überzeitlichen Einheit der Natur nicht auf.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <quote>„Die urtiefe Kraft der Organisation“</quote>, so urteilt Humboldt 1808 in seinen Ansichten der Natur, 
+            <quote>„fesselt, trotz einer gewissen Freiwilligkeit im abnormen Entfalten einzelner Teile, alle tierische und vegetabilische Gestaltung an feste, ewig wiederkehrende Typen“ 
+              <ref>(245)</ref>
+                     </quote>; Chamissos Plädoyer für Kohärenz und Kontinuität der Arten fällt ganz ähnlich aus.</s>
+                  <s>In seiner Abhandlung 
+            <title rend="italic">Ansichten von der Pflanzenkunde und dem Pflanzenreiche</title>, die er selbst einmal als sein 
+            <quote>„wissenschaftliches Glaubensbekenntnis“</quote> bezeichnet, wendet 
+            <pb n="128"/>sich der Berliner Botaniker dezidiert gegen Vertreter einer frühen Evolutionstheorie, die er die 
+            <quote>„Verwandlungslehre“</quote> nennt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
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+               <title>LHU/KJZ.00003 Küpper, Joachim: Zu den Schwierigkeiten einer Wissenschaft vom literarischen Text, [Literaturwissenschaft]. - Berlin, 2011 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
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+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
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+               <idno>ID</idno>
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+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Küpper, Joachim</author>
+                  <title>Zu den Schwierigkeiten einer Wissenschaft vom literarischen Text</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Berlin</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Friedrich Schlegel Graduiertenschule für literaturwissenschaftliche Studien Friedrich Schlegel Graduiertenschule für literaturwissenschaftliche Studien</publisher>
+                  <date when="2011">2011</date>
+                  <biblScope from="11" to="20" unit="page">11-20</biblScope>
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+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
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+            <div type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Mit den Formulierungen dieses letzten Satzes alludiert Lotman auf die Aristotelische 
+            <hi rend="italic">Poetik</hi> und hebt zugleich ins Bewusstsein, dass in der Literatur des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts ein literarischer und historiographischer Text von der Faktur her oftmals ununterscheidbar sind und wir sie doch, gewissermaßen automatisch, in völlig unterschiedlicher Art decodieren, ja sich unsere Lektüre eines historiographischen Texts, etwa einer Zeitungsnotiz, augenblicklich ändert, sobald dieser Eingang findet in ein Druckerzeugnis, welches uns mit je spezifischen Mitteln signalisiert, das zu Lesende sei Literatur.</s>
+                  <s>Man könnte diese zweite Ebene der Lektüre: das Schicksal der Anna Karenina als 
+            <quote>,Abbildung des Schicksals jeder Frau, ja jedes Menschen‘</quote>, als eine rhetorische, symbolische oder auch allegorische Lektüre bezeichnen, in dem Sinne, dass wir dem Text unterstellen, er meine zusätzlich noch etwas anderes, als was er zunächst sagt.</s>
+                  <s>Wie schon das Lotman-Zitat impliziert, ist diese zweite Ebene der Decodierung eine solche, deren Bezeichnetes im Unterschied zur ersten im gegebenen Text nicht konstituiert ist (
+            <quote>‚die Abbildung eines anderen Objektes, das zu unbegrenzter Ausweitung tendiert‘</quote>).</s>
+                  <s>Die symbolische Ebene des Texts wird vom jeweiligen Leser im Akt der Lektüre entworfen.</s>
+                  <s>Wie jeder Akt der Symbolisierung, das heißt der Zuweisung von Bedeutung, ist sie deshalb letztlich beliebig, oder, in der Terminologie Umberto Ecos, 
+            <quote>,offen‘</quote>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Das Spezifische der Lektüre des literarischen Texts, bzw. dessen Part, über den ich im Moment handele, wäre aus dieser Perspektive möglicherweise eine Art von Lust am Schöpferischen.</s>
+                  <s>Auf der Grundlage der primären Mitteilung des Texts (in diesem Fall dem Bericht vom tragischen Schicksal einer Frau namens Anna Karenina) ist der jeweilige Leser frei, im Prozess des Betrachtens und des schwebenden Nachdenkens eine eigene, allgemeinere Bedeutung des Texts zu entwerfen, die letztlich nur der Anforderung zu genügen hat, in einer sinnvollen Zeichen-Bezeichneten-Relation zu der primären zu stehen.</s>
+                  <s>Über die Rigorosität dieser Anforderung indes, über den Grad der ‚Stimmig-
+            <pb break="no" n="15"/>keit‘ der Lektüre und auch über den Grad der Exaktheit, das heißt Transparenz, befindet allein der einzelne Leser selbst.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Dieser konstruktive Part der Decodierung eines literarischen Texts hat Affinitäten zu dem, was wir als Spiel bezeichnen.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses Spiel würde sich ansiedeln in jener intermediären Zone zwischen den Daten der Sinneswahrnehmung und dem völlig unsinnlich Konzeptuellen, welche wir in unserer Kultur die 
+            <term rend="italic">phantasmata</term> nennen, der Synthetisierung von Sinnesdaten zu ,Bildern‘, die dem entsprechen können, was wir für die Realität halten, die jedoch nicht notwendigerweise auf den Realnexus verpflichtet sind, sondern auch mögliche, wünschbare oder schreckliche Varianten von Welt in unserem Bewusstsein erzeugen können.</s>
+                  <s>Das Spielerische der Lektüre stünde zunächst also für die Freistellung von unmittelbar pragmatischen Folgen.</s>
+                  <s>Wir müssen für diese oder jene Interpretation eines literarischen Texts nicht eventuell mit unserem Ruf, unserem Geld oder gar unserem Leben einstehen, selbst wenn wir unsere Lektüre publik machen.</s>
+                  <s>Und als normale, das heißt nicht-institutionelle Leser müssen wir im Unterschied zum authentischen Künstler, für den das ‚Schöpferische‘ in der Regel harte, zuweilen quälend harte Arbeit ist, das Produkt unserer Weiter- oder auch Neu-Schöpfung des gegebenen Texts niemals irgendeinem Publikum als fertiges Werk zur allgemeinen Beurteilung ab- bzw. ausliefern.</s>
+                  <s>Das Spielerische meint also die Marge des Nachdenkens über Ernsthaftes ohne ernsthafte Folgen wie auch das Tentative, die Momente des Unabschließbaren und des immer wieder Neuen.</s>
+                  <s>Es steht für die Entlastung vom Druck des Realitätsprinzips in einer Situation, die ungeachtet dessen aber nicht die der völligen Emanzipation vom Lebenspraktischen ist, wie im Fall der Musik.</s>
+                  <s>Was Kant 
+            <quote>‚ästhetische Ideen‘</quote> genannt hat und was man auch das Phantasmatische nennen könnte, steht im Fall des Wortkunstwerks für die Anwesenheit der symbolischen Ordnung und zugleich für die partielle Befreiung von jener Komplexitätsreduktion, die sie uns auferlegt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Wenn wir uns als Literaturwissenschaftler sehen, befinden wir und also in der einigermaßen misslichen Lage, dass eine wesentliche Dimension unseres Gegenstands, des Literarischen, am einzelnen Objekt, das heißt 
+            <term rend="italic">in concreto</term> schwerlich nachvollziehbar zu machen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Wir können in unseren theoretischen Reflexionen darauf hinweisen oder uns damit begnügen, die entsprechenden theoretischen Reflexionen jener Riesen in Erinnerung zu halten, auf deren Schultern wir stehen , ohne indes, so scheint es mir, wesentlich weiter zu blicken als jene.</s>
+                  <s>Aber der Versuch, das Spielerische, Schwebende der Literatur anhand eines gegebenen Falls, eines singulären Texts, kommunikabel zu machen, tendiert zu Banalität oder endet gar in Peinlichkeit.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="16"/>Nun müssen wir daraus nicht die Konsequenz ziehen, den Antrag auf augenblickliche Schließung der literaturwissenschaftlichen Seminare zu stellen.</s>
+                  <s>ich erinnere nochmals an das gebrachte Lotman-Zitat und würde sagen wollen, dass jene 
+            <quote>,unbegrenzte Ausweitung‘</quote>, zu der ein partikulärer Text tendiert, sobald wir ihn als literarischen lesen, den Raum definiert, in dem sich das Spielerische, das Ästhetische, das Genussvolle entfaltet, das wir bei der Lektüre empfinden.</s>
+                  <s>Aber Lotman nennt diesen Aspekt als letzten und er ordnet ihm beispielhaft drei andere Aspekte vor (
+            <quote>‚das Schicksal der Heldin als Abbildung des Schicksals jeder Frau einer bestimmten Epoche und einer bestimmten sozialen Schicht, jeder Frau überhaupt, ja jedes Menschen‘</quote>).</s>
+                  <s>Diese Aspekte würde ich als mögliche Varianten (das heißt: weitere wären denkbar) dessen bezeichnen, was ich im Unterschied zum gerade erörterten spielerischen Allgemeinen das definite Allgemeine des literarischen Texts nennen will und das mit Aristoteles‘ Bemerkung auf den Nenner gebracht ist, der literarische Text sei insofern er immer auch Mitteilung eines Allgemeinen ist, etwas Philosophischeres als der historiographische.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Wenn es kulturübergreifend und über einige Jahrtausende hin Texte gibt, die man zugleich als das liest, was sie 
+            <term rend="italic">prima facie</term> sagen, und als Mitteilung eines anderen, Allgemeinen, was in ihnen nicht explizit gesagt ist, gibt es offensichtlich eine persistentes Bedürfnis auf allgemeine Reflexion des Partikulären, anders gesagt, auf Sinnbildung.</s>
+                  <s>Und es gibt offensichtlich keine geeigneteres Instrumentarium auf Erfüllung dieses Bedürfnisses der Anschauung des Partikulären als Allgemeines als die Lektüre literarischer Texte, soweit es eben nicht um das Wiederfinden einer prästabilisierten, das heißt etwa einer metaphysisch-theologischen, sondern um das tentative Erproben einer möglichen Sinnbildung geht.</s>
+                  <s>So scheint mir unsere Bemühung, das literaturwissenschaftliche Deuten von Texten, im Prinzip genau so sinnvoll oder aber absurd wie alle anderen Bemühungen, die auf die Stillung unserer Bedürfnisse ausgehen und die sich allesamt, bis hin zur Beschaffung von Nahrung oder der Heilung von Krankheiten, in Ansehung, sei es der Unvermeidlichkeit unseres Todes, sei es der von Borges in seiner Erzählung 
+            <title rend="italic">El Immortal</title> erläuterten Unerträglichkeit eines Lebens ohne Ende, einer Letzt-Begründbarkeit entziehen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Zu erwägen bliebe gleichwohl, ob, wenn Lektüre des Partikulären als Codierung eines Allgemeinen eine Art anthropologisches Bedürfnis erfüllt, es der Institutionalisierung einer solchen Lektürepraxis bedarf, also dessen, was wir im Deutschen mit dem vielleicht etwas unglücklichen Terminus 
+            <term>‚Literaturwissenschaft‘</term> belegen.</s>
+                  <s>Letztlich ist jede Texthermeneutik zunächst Individualhermeneutik, und zwischen den Dokumenten solcher Individualhermeneutik 
+            <pb n="17"/>zu operieren, soweit sie Praktiken einzelner Leser sind und bleiben ist unmöglich.</s>
+                  <s>Jede individuelle Lektüre, so trivial und begrenzt sie auch sein mag, ist darin gerechtfertigt, dass sie für den jeweiligen Leser das skizzierte Grundbedürfnis, das auch die geläufigen Praktiken der phantasmatischen Identifikation umfasst, zu erfüllen vermag.</s>
+                  <s>Der trans-individuelle Belang der Lektüren entsteht also einzig daraus, dass das Produkt einer solchen Individualhermeneutik in der Lage ist, auch andere Leser zu interessieren, und dieser Belang ist umso größer, je mehr solcher im Prinzip Interessierten eine derartige individuelle Lektüre aktuell zu interessieren vermag.</s>
+                  <s>Nicht intersubjektive Nachprüfbarkeit, das heißt Wissenschaftlichkeit, sondern intersubjektive Resonanzerzeugungsfähigkeit, dies scheint mir das Kriterium, an dem sich die Früchte literaturwissenschaftlicher Bemühungen bzw. deren Wert bemessen.</s>
+                  <s>Dies wiederum heißt nichts anderes als den Belang der Lektüren an das gebunden zu sehen, was ein gegebenes soziales Gefüge, eine Diskursgemeinschaft (anglo-amerikanisch: eine 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">community</foreign>
+                     </hi>)zu einer gewissen Zeit interessiert bzw. was sie interessieren sollte.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Diese letztere Formel – was sie, eine 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">community</foreign>
+                     </hi>, interessieren sollte – klingt nach der Wiederbelebung obsoleter Wahrheitsansprüche, aber sie ist anders gemeint.</s>
+                  <s>Lektüren, die einzig dem Rechnung tragen, was eine gegebene Gemeinschaft zu einem gegebenen Zeitpunkt wie selbstverständlich interessiert, sind tendenziell langweilig.</s>
+                  <s>Sie machen keine neuen oder partiell neuen Sinnangebote, sondern repristinieren bekannte.</s>
+                  <s>Insofern sind sie, also alles das, was ich den 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">mainstream</foreign>
+                     </hi> unserer Fächer nennen möchte, von schwacher Resonanzerzeugungsfähigkeit.</s>
+                  <s>Die anderen ‚starken‘ Lektüren, die sich mit neuen oder reprofilierten Sinnangeboten auf den Markt der Möglichkeiten begeben, sind riskante Lektüren.</s>
+                  <s>Sie können ganz ohne Aufmerksamkeit bleiben oder aber diese Aufmerksamkeit erst finden, wenn ihre Verfasser bereits verblichen sind.</s>
+                  <s>Sie können enthusiastische Aufnahme finden und doch bereits wenige Jahrzehnte danach als mitverantwortlich für große moralische oder soziale Katastrophen am Pranger stehen.</s>
+                  <s>Was zugleich interessant und 
+            <foreign xml:lang="en">,helpful‘</foreign> ist, wie man in den USA sagt, lässt sich vom Standpunkt der Gegenwart aus nicht beurteilen, sondern immer erst aus der Rückschau auf eine abgeschlossene Epoche, und es ist eine verbreitete, aber unrettbar naive Blindheit, in einer jeweiligen Gegenwart zu sagen man hätte einstmals sicher gewusst, welche Art von Hermeneutik jener Zeit gefrommt hätte.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>So ist es denn immer unserem jeweiligen 
+            <term rend="italic">iudicum</term> anheim gegeben zu entscheiden, was denn nun unserer Zeit frommt: Lektüren, die die kulturelle Konstruiertheit von Geschlechterrollen ins Bewusstsein heben oder solche, die 
+            <pb n="18"/>auf die Begrenztheit einer derartigen Sicht verweisen bzw. sie gar ignorieren, Lektüren, die auf Subversion ausgehen oder auf die Wiedererinnerung an die Positionen der 
+            <term rend="italic">Nikomachischen Ethik</term> bzw. gar – 
+            <term rend="italic">horribile dictu</term> – des Lasteroktonars der Religion unserer Väter, Lektüren, die auf Autoreferentialität oder Mimetizität aus sind, auf Dekonstruktion (was ja auch eine Form von Sinnbildung ist) oder auf einen stabilen Sinn.</s>
+                  <s>Ob wir uns als jeweiliger Leser mit diesen Varianten in Übereinstimmung mit dem, was unsere jeweilige Zeit erfordert, befunden haben oder nicht, werden wir vermutlich in den meisten Fällen nie erfahren, und es ist in Ansehung dessen, was alles gedruckt wird, auch zweifelhaft, dass die Reflexion auf diese Zusammenhänge das Gieren nach dem schnellen Erfolg im 
+            <term rend="italic">hic et nunc</term> zu zügeln vermag.</s>
+                  <s>Letztlich befinden wir uns damit in einer Situation, die sekundär die der Verfasser unserer Texte, das heißt der literarischen Texte, nachbildet.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn diese handwerklich, auf lateinisch: artistisch, gut gemacht sind, sind sie schön, aber für ihren bleibenden Wert ist das eine Beigabe, nicht das entscheidende Moment.</s>
+                  <s>Wahr sind sie allesamt nicht.</s>
+                  <s>Und ob sie gut, im Sinne von 
+            <foreign xml:lang="en">‚useful‘</foreign> oder 
+            <foreign xml:lang="en">‚helpful‘</foreign> sind, entscheidet sich erst lange Zeit nach ihrem Entstehen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Ich möchte mich abschließend beziehen auf die modellhafte Beschreibung der Lektüre, die Hans Robert Jauß in seinem Essay 
+            <title>„Zur Abgrenzung und Bestimmung einer literarischen Hermeneutik“</title> geliefert hat.</s>
+                  <s>Ich übernehme das dort entwickelte Drei-Stufen-Schema, mit einer soweit ich sehe, allerdings eher geringfügigen Variation in der Beschreibung der drei Stufen.</s>
+                  <s>Vor allem liegt mir daran zu unterstreichen, dass Jauß die ästhetische Erfahrung des literarischen Texts, die er in Kantischer Tradition mit dem Terminus des 
+            <term>‚Genießens‘</term> belegt und die ich das 
+            <term>‚Spielerische‘</term> genannt habe, von den zwei anderen, sinndeutenden Stufen separiert.</s>
+                  <s>Ich argumentiere über Jauß hinaus, dass die theoretische Beschreibung dieser Stufe zu unserer Profession gehört, nicht aber die Befassung damit am einzelnen Objekt.</s>
+                  <s>Die zwei anderen Stufen bezeichnet Jauß, erstens, als die der Rekonstruktion der seinerzeitigen Botschaft des Werks, sowie zweitens, als die der Befragung auf aktuell virulente Probleme hin.</s>
+                  <s>Ich würde diese zwei Stufen – eingedenk der hermeneutischen Basis-Annahme, dass es keine Rekonstruktion des Vergangenen geben kann, die nicht in gegenwärtigem Interesse gründet – zu einer einzigen machen wollen und ihr als erste Stufe die eingangs skizzierten, von der Pragmatik und der Dekonstruktion entwickelten Gesichtspunkte zur prinzipiellen Prekarität sprachlicher Äußerungen, das heißt auch nicht-literarischer, vorordnen wollen.</s>
+                  <s>So würde zwar Gadamers Diktum, dass im Fall des literarischen Texts die Ästhetik in der Hermeneutik aufgehe 
+            <ref>(157)</ref>, nicht vorbehaltlos, wohl aber in dem 
+            <pb n="19"/>Sinne unterschreiben wollen, dass es diese, die hermeneutische Dimension literarischer Texte ist, über die sich eine Rede führen lässt, die den Anspruch erheben kann, gehört zu werden.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
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+               <title>LHU/GNP.00004 Gädeke, Nora: Praxis und Theorie: Ein Blick in die Werkstatt des Historikers Leibniz. - Hamburg, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
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+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
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+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Gädeke, Nora</author>
+                  <title>Praxis und Theorie: Ein Blick in die Werkstatt des Historikers Leibniz</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Hamburg</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Hamburg University Press Hamburg University Press</publisher>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+                  <biblScope from="43" to="85" unit="page">43-85</biblScope>
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+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
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+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
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+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>Eine schwierige Beziehung: die Historie in Leibniz’ Leben und Werk</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Leibniz und die Historie: das ist eine ambivalente Geschichte.</s>
+                  <s>Die große Bedeutung, die der Geschichtsforschung im Leben des Universalgelehrten zukam, geht aus jeder biographischen Darstellung hervor.</s>
+                  <s>1 Der Philosoph, Mathematiker, Wissenschaftsorganisator, 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="fr">citoyen</foreign>
+                     </hi> der Gelehrtenrepublik, dessen immense Korrespondenz schon von den Zeitgenossen bestaunt wurde, der sich mit allen Gebieten des damaligen Wissens produktiv und innovativ beschäftigte … Leibniz, der Jurist und Geheime Justizrat am Hof zu Hannover, an dem er die größere Hälfte seines Lebens verbrachte, war dort vor allem eines: der Historiker vom Dienst.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="44"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Jedenfalls würde man das heute so sagen.</s>
+                  <s>Leibniz selbst hat sich zeitlebens dagegen verwahrt, als braunschweig-lüneburgischer Hofhistoriograph bezeichnet zu werden.</s>
+                  <s>2 Das soziale Kapital, das ihm der Hofdienst in der – gelehrten wie politischen – Welt verschaffte, resultierte aus seiner in formellen Funktion als gelehrter und amüsanter Gesprächspartner von Fürsten und vor allem Fürstinnen 3 – aber nicht aus der im höfischen Reglement weit unten angesiedelten Charge eines Historiographen.</s>
+                  <s>4  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Für uns, die wir uns in Generationen entstandenen Leibniz-Bildern gegenübersehen, ist die Historie bei ihm auf andere Weise negativ konnotiert: verbunden mit einem groß angelegten historischen Werk im Dienste des Welfenhauses, das Leibniz über 30 Jahre lang beschäftigen, seine Kräfte immer wieder absorbieren, das Verhältnis zu seinem Fürstenhof zunehmend belasten sollte, und das er schließlich bei seinem Tod im November 1716, kurz vor einem Etappenziel, unvollendet zurückließ.</s>
+                  <s>5 Erst 130 Jahre später, um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts, wurde der Hauptteil, die 
+            <title rend="italic">Annales Imperii Occidentis Brunsvicenses</title> von 768 bis 1005 (geplant war zuletzt: bis 1024) veröffentlicht.</s>
+                  <s>6 Leibniz hatte sich für diese Aufgabe, die seine zen trale 
+            <pb n="45"/>dienstliche Verpflichtung werden sollte, einst selbst vorgeschlagen.</s>
+                  <s>7 In späteren Jahren wird er sie als seinen „Sisyphosstein“ bezeichnen, 8 gegen Ende seines Lebens wird sie zur Erklärung für die Zurückstellung seines philosophisch-mathematischen Œuvre und der gelehrten Korrespondenzen und zum Grund für bittere Klagen über die geringe Achtung, die ihm von Seiten seines Fürstenhauses entgegenkomme, ihm, dem in ganz Europa berühmten: 9 die Historie verkörpert, so hat es den Anschein, einen geradezu tragischen Aspekt in Leibniz’ Leben und Werk.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Das klingt zugespitzt – aber ein Blick in Leibniz-Biographien, in Leibniz-Artikel, in die Leibniz-Rezeption zeigt: das entspricht einem verbreiteten Leibniz-Bild.</s>
+                  <s>10 An diesem Bild, das sich spätestens im letzten Drittel des 19. Jahrhunderts aufgebaut hat, 11 hat auch ein Perspektivenwechsel einige 
+            <pb n="46"/>Jahrzehnte später nicht viel geändert.</s>
+                  <s>Untersuchungen, die (etwa seit der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts) nach einem „Mehrwert“ der Beschäftigung des Historiographen Leibniz für den hannoverschen Hof fragten, kamen tendenziell zu einem vernichtenden Ergebnis: der Universalgelehrte war dienstlich eigentlich ziemlich untragbar.</s>
+                  <s>12 Vor allem wegen der Welfengeschichte, die unendlich viel an Ressourcen verschlang und ziemlich eigenwillig ausgeführt wurde (allein schon in der Wahl der Gelehrtensprache Latein, nicht der Hofsprache Französisch), ein Werk, dessen Konzeption mehrfach geändert, 13 das immer wieder als bald vollendet angekündigt, aber nie fertiggestellt wurde, das vom Kurfürsten resigniert mit der „Weißen Frau“, also einem Phantom verglichen wurde.</s>
+                  <s>14 Ob als Fessel oder als verweigerte Arbeit: die Hausgeschichte (die übrigens auch von Generationen von Historikern nach Leibniz nicht vollendet werden konnte 15 )scheint der dunkle Punkt in der großen Leibniz-Erzählung zu sein.</s>
+                  <s>16 
+            <pb n="47"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Ein Desiderat der Leibniz-Forschung: die Historischen Schriften</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nun sind Bilder das eine, Forschungsergebnisse etwas anderes.</s>
+                  <s>Aber auch die Forschung über den Historiker Leibniz tritt nicht als Erfolgsgeschichte auf.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Blick in die Leibniz-Bibliographie zeigt es: 17 den 91 Treffern, die das Schlagwort „Leibniz als Historiker“ derzeit ergibt, stehen allein für das philosophische Teilgebiet „Metaphysik“ 1852 gegenüber; nimmt man weitere philosophische Gebiete hinzu, so bewegt sich die Historie bei einem Anteil von etwa 2% (und auch gegenüber der Mathematik sind es nur etwa 4%).</s>
+                  <s>Keineswegs wegen fehlenden Quellenmaterials; es ist schon fest ge stellt worden, dass Leibniz’ Korrespondenzen, Arbeitsmaterialien und Ausarbeitungen zur Geschichte den größten Teil des Nachlasses bilden.</s>
+                  <s>18 Was fehlt, ist die Aufarbeitung in der Forschung – und bereits deren Grundlage, die Edition.</s>
+                  <s>Man könnte es schon als signifikant für diese schwierige Beziehung ansehen: von den acht Reihen der historisch-kritischen Leibniz-Edition (unter Leitung der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen), die inzwischen bei bald 60 Bänden angekommen ist, 19 ist eine einzige noch nicht in Arbeit – die Reihe V mit den 
+            <title rend="italic">Historischen und sprachwissenschaftlichen Schriften</title>.</s>
+                  <s>Das Interesse daran wäre eigentlich groß, das spiegeln häufige Klagen über dieses Desiderat – und auch die starke Resonanz, die vor etwa 10 Jahren eine Auswahledition von Leibniz’ 
+            <title rend="italic">Schriften und Briefen zur Geschichte</title> gefunden hat.</s>
+                  <s>20  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Allerdings ist der Historiker Leibniz in der Akademie-Ausgabe immerhin ansatzweise sichtbar in zwei Reihen, die weit fortgeschritten sind.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der einen weist bereits der Reihentitel darauf hin: der 
+            <title rend="italic">Allgemeine, politische und historische Briefwechsel</title> (Reihe I), in der Bearbeitung inzwischen in Leibniz’ letztem Lebensjahrzehnt angekommen, enthält die Korrespondenz mit anderen auf diesem Gebiet wirkenden Gelehrten und die für die 
+            <pb n="48"/>Historie außerordentlich aufschlussreiche mit den Mitarbeitern; sie spiegelt auch Leibniz’ Teilnahme am historischen Diskurs seiner Zeit.</s>
+                  <s>21  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Bei der anderen, deren jüngster Band soeben das Jahr 1700 erreicht hat, den 
+            <title rend="italic">Politischen Schriften</title>, 22 ergibt sich der Bezug aus der zeitgenössischen engen Verbindung von Politik und Geschichte.</s>
+                  <s>Leibniz’ Schaffen auf dem Gebiet der Historie war keineswegs auf die welfische Hausgeschichte beschränkt.</s>
+                  <s>Er war wirklich der Historiker vom Dienst.</s>
+                  <s>Ob mit einem elaborierten Bildprogramm zur fürstlichen Repräsentation oder der Bereitstellung von rechtshistorisch fundierten Argumenten in Auseinandersetzungen um Rang, Hoheit, Rechte, Besitz oder für die dynastische Heiratspolitik: 23 Leibniz hat für den Hof zu Hannover stetig im Hintergrund gewirkt, als – wie Günther Scheel, lang fast als einziger mit der Materie befasst, es einmal formuliert hat – „Sachbearbeiter und Referent“.</s>
+                  <s>24 Dabei entstanden zahlreiche Schriften, die übrigens zeigen, dass dieser Historiker für Hannover keinesfalls eine Fehlinvestition war.</s>
+                  <s>25 Aber sie blieben, vor allem für den 
+            <pb n="49"/>hofinternen Gebrauch bestimmt, zu seinen Lebzeiten zumeist unveröffentlicht (und wenn veröffentlicht, dann unter Pseudonym 26 ). Durch die Edition in den 
+            <title rend="italic">Politischen Schriften</title> tritt dieses Wirken zunehmend zutage: dort, wo Historie evident politisch ist, nimmt der Historiker Leibniz bereits mehr Kontur an.</s>
+                  <s>Immer noch ist er aber nicht eigentlich Gegenstand eines lebendigen Diskurses.</s>
+                  <s>An der unvollständigen editorischen Aufbereitung allein kann es nicht liegen: sie gilt für Leibniz’ Œuvre insgesamt.</s>
+                  <s>Während die Forschung sich in anderen Gebieten aber nicht von einer regen Diskussion abhalten lässt, tritt sie der Historie, dem 
+            <hi rend="italic">opus magnum Annales</hi> zumal, nur zögernd gegenüber – warum?</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Darauf gäbe es ein ganzes Bündel von Antworten.</s>
+                  <s>Eine wäre: 2300 Seiten in Latein, wie sie die 
+            <title rend="italic">Annales Imperii</title> in der Ausgabe von 1843–1846 einnehmen, ohne Erschließungselemente wie Register, sind auch für Fachhistoriker eine ziemliche Herausforderung.</s>
+                  <s>Eine andere: Dieses Mammutwerk, als Zwitter zwischen Hausgeschichte und einer Reichsgeschichte der Karolinger- und Ottonenzeit wahrgenommen, 27 fällt formal und gattungsgeschichtlich durch sämtliche Raster und erschien überhaupt zur Unzeit.</s>
+                  <s>Um die Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts, im Vorfeld der Reichseinigung, 28 hatte sich das Genre dynastische Hausgeschichte eigentlich überlebt.</s>
+                  <s>Für die aufblühende Reichsgeschichte war mit den 
+            <title rend="italic">Jahrbüchern der deutschen Geschichte</title>
+                     <pb n="50"/>ein ähnlich aufgebautes Grundlagenwerk im Entstehen; 29 auf Deutsch, ohne den Hautgout des territorialen Partikularismus: die 
+            <title rend="italic">Annales</title> sind zu spät im Druck erschienen, um noch Gegenstand der Diskussion zu werden.</s>
+                  <s>30 Allerdings muss ich sogleich relativieren: vereinzelt lässt sich schon Rezeption finden, aber eben weniger im historiographiegeschichtlichen Diskurs als in der mediaevistischen Detailarbeit; hier hat der Historiker Leibniz durchaus Spuren hinterlassen.</s>
+                  <s>31  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>In diesem Zusammenhang gäbe es eine weitere Erklärung, und sie möchte ich jetzt in den Mittelpunkt stellen.</s>
+                  <s>Wer Leibniz’ 
+            <term rend="italic">opus historicum</term> gegenübertritt, findet darin durchaus Antwort auf traditionelle ideengeschichtliche Fragen wie nach Geschichtsdenken und philosophie, nach historischer Narration und Methode, zur Einordnung in den Kontext der barocken Geschichtswissenschaft und der Historiographie-Geschichte überhaupt.</s>
+                  <s>32 Aber vor allem anderen findet er – überreich, geradezu erschla gend – Material für einen aktuellen Ansatz: Wissenschaft (hier also Geschichtswissenschaft) als gelehrte Praxis.</s>
+                  <s>33 
+            <pb n="51"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Martin Mulsow hat es so formuliert: 
+            <quote>„Geschichte von den intellektuellen Praktiken her zu schreiben, bedeutet, nicht so sehr auf Endresultate zu schauen, sondern auf die Notizzettel der Gelehrten, ihre Arbeitsmethoden, ihren Umgang mit Büchern“</quote>.34 Das alles ist bei Leibniz in Fülle vorhanden: die von ihm genutzten Bibliotheksbestände, 35 Notizzettel mit Wissens partikeln und rasch notierten Gedanken, Konzepte, die die stufenweise Entstehung von Ergebnissen erkennen lassen, die Korrespondenz, die seit Beginn der Arbeit an der Hausgeschichte in hohem Maße auch für diese Aufgabe eingesetzt wird.</s>
+                  <s>36 Das 
+            <term rend="italic">opus historicum</term> lässt Geschichtsdenken, methodisches Vorgehen und Postulate erkennen – der außerordentlich gut erhaltene Nachlass in der Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek Hannover und die bibliothekarischen Altbestände spiegeln in ihrer Materialität zusätzlich seine Arbeitsumgebung und praxis.</s>
+                  <s>37  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Ganz neu ist der Aspekt der historischen Praxis in der Leibnizforschung freilich nicht.</s>
+                  <s>Die fundamentale Monographie von Louis Davillé 
+            <hi rend="italic">Leibniz historien</hi> von 1909, ebenfalls ein Mammutwerk, enthält bereits ein Kapitel 
+            <pb n="52"/>dazu.</s>
+                  <s>38 Rezipiert wurde dieses Werk allerdings (im Rahmen der ohnehin spärlichen Literatur zum Thema) eher aufgrund der ideengeschichtlichen Kapitel.</s>
+                  <s>39 Untersuchungen aus dem Umkreis der Akademie-Ausgabe konnten das Bild differenzieren und erweitern.</s>
+                  <s>40 Ich gehe erneut daran und möchte den Historiker Leibniz im Folgenden als „Praktiker“ präsentieren; zeigen, wie er vorgegangen ist bei der Produktion historischen Wissens, was sein Handwerkszeug, wie seine „Werkstatt“ eingerichtet war.</s>
+                  <s>Aber zuvor muss die Theorie angesprochen werden, genauer: das hinter der Praxis stehende epistemische Postulat.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Der Hintergrund: fides historica und Politik</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wer im Umfeld eines barocken Fürstenhofs mit der Historie befasst ist, tut dies nicht in erster Linie als Gelehrter, sondern als Diener des Fürstenhauses.</s>
+                  <s>Geschichte dient dort in hohem Maße der Repräsentation und der Legitimation (hinzu kommt die Unterhaltungsfunktion).</s>
+                  <s>41 Das betrifft ganz 
+            <pb n="53"/>besonders die Geschichte des Mittelalters, der Zeit, in der die im 17. Jahrhundert präsenten Adels- und Fürstenfamilien in Erscheinung treten, auf die sie Hoheitsrechte und Besitztitel zurückführen – und ihre eigene Bedeutung überhaupt.</s>
+                  <s>So wird das Opernhaus zu Hannover 1689 mit einer Oper eröffnet, die Macht und Größe des welfischen Ahnherrn Heinrichs des Löwen demonstrieren soll; 42 in einer Zeit, in der sich diese Welfenlinie über das angestrebte Kurfürstentum bis zur englischen Krone zu einem der führenden Fürstenhäuser des Reiches und Europas entwickeln sollte.</s>
+                  <s>Die Historie sollte diesen rasanten Aufstieg publizistisch begleiten und ihm, der insbesondere auf Reichsebene umstritten war, Legitimation verleihen.</s>
+                  <s>43  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Dieser propagandistische Einsatz trifft auf eine Entwicklung, die sich im Europa des 17. Jahrhunderts ausbreitet: die Erinnerungsbilder werden hinterfragt.</s>
+                  <s>Es breitet sich die Erkenntnis aus, dass eine Aussage nicht allein dadurch verifiziert ist, weil sie, einmal aufgeschrieben, immer wieder tradiert wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Es werden kritische Untersuchungen vorgenommen; es geht um Exaktheit und Beweis; es werden Quellen verlangt.</s>
+                  <s>44 Und auch diese werden nicht unbesehen hingenommen, sondern streng geprüft, mit prinzipiel lem Zweifel an ihrem Wahrheitsgehalt, nicht zuletzt aufgrund einer großen Zahl von evident gefälschten Quellen.</s>
+                  <s>Eine (insbesondere aus der 
+            <pb n="54"/>Praxis der großen benediktinischen und jesuitischen Editionsunternehmen resultierende) radikal skeptizistische Richtung hält den größten Teil der Überlieferung zum Mittelalter überhaupt für fiktiv.</s>
+                  <s>45 Diese Richtung setzt sich nicht durch, aber sie stellt sozusagen eine Warnleuchte dar.</s>
+                  <s>Das 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="la">discri men veri ac falsi</foreign>
+                     </hi> wird zur Messlatte für Überlieferung überhaupt – und sich daraus ableitende Ansprüche.</s>
+                  <s>46  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LHU.ECF.00005">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LHU/ECF.00005 Engel, Christine: Frühe russische Detektivgeschichten. - Potsdam, 2019 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
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+            <publicationStmt>
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+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
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+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Engel, Christine</author>
+                  <title>Frühe russische Detektivgeschichten</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Potsdam</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Universitätsverlag Potsdam Universitätsverlag Potsdam</publisher>
+                  <date when="2019">2019</date>
+                  <biblScope from="49" to="67" unit="page">49-67</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
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+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
+               </person>
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+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
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+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head rend="bold">Ehestand und Scheidung</head>
+               <p>So wie bei Škljarevskij sind auch in Achšarumovs Roman  
+                  
+          <title rend="italic">Koncy v vodu</title>
+                  <s> 
+                die handelnden Personen gesellschaftliche Aufsteiger.</s>
+                  <s>Und wiederum sind sowohl Mörder als auch Opfer Frauen und die Geschlechterverhältnisse ein zentrales Thema.</s>
+                  <s>Die Motivation der Täterin hier ist ihr unbedingter Wille, durch eine passende Heirat in bessere Verhältnisse zu kommen.</s>
+                  <s>Dass der Auserwählte vorerst noch verheiratet ist, wenn auch getrennt lebend, ist ein Hindernis, das sie durch den Giftmord an der Noch-Ehefrau beseitigt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Dem Leser werden auch in dieser Detektivgeschichte anschauliche Milieustudien vermittelt.</s>
+                  <s>Julija Nikolaevna, die Täterin, kommt im Alter von zwei Jahren zu 
+            <hi rend="italic">maman</hi>, einer herrschaftlichen, kinderlosen Dame.</s>
+                  <s>Dort genießt sie wie eine Tochter des Hauses das entsprechende Erziehungsprogramm mit Musik, Tanz und Konversation, das sie für eine standesgemäße Heirat vorbereiten soll.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="italic">Maman</hi> führt jedoch ein sexuell aktives Leben mit wechselnden Liebhabern, dem sich Julija mit 17 Jahren heimlich anschließt.</s>
+                  <s>Als 
+            <hi rend="italic">maman</hi> dahinterkommt, sieht sie Julijas Ruf ramponiert und drängt sie in eine arrangierte Ehe mit einem ältlichen Kanzleischreiber, was für Julija zugleich einen tiefen sozialen Abstieg bedeutet.</s>
+                  <s>Ihr Mann, den sie aus tiefster Seele verachtet und ihn das auch wissen lässt, bekommt für die Eheschließung Geld und laufende Zah-
+            <pb break="no" n="56"/>lungen von 
+            <hi rend="italic">maman</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Damit sieht Julija den Kontrakt erfüllt, nimmt sich ihrerseits alle Freiheiten und empfängt Gäste, darunter auch männliche.</s>
+                  <s>Als einzig möglichen Ausweg aus ihrer verfahrenen Situation sieht sie die Instrumentalisierung ihrer sexuellen Attraktivität, um einen in Leidenschaft entbrannten Verehrer dazu zu bringen, ihre Scheidung in die Wege zu leiten und ihr einen adäquaten, ehrbaren Ehestand zu bieten.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Achšarumov wählt einen ambitionierten Darstellungsmodus aus der abwechselnden Ich-Perspektive von zwei Erzählern, wodurch sich eine Art Doppelbelichtung ergibt.</s>
+                  <s>Die eine Perspektive ist die Julijas und die andere die des Cousins des Mordopfers, der die Ermittlung zu seiner Angelegenheit macht.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Erzähler, Sergej Čerezov, ist ein 35jähriger Petersburger, ein enttäuschter Intellektueller, der für seinen bescheidenen Lebensunterhalt bei einer Handelsgesellschaft arbeitet.</s>
+                  <s>Auf der Besuchsfahrt zu seiner Cousine Ol’ga, die seit der Trennung von ihrem Ehemann in einer Provinzstadt bei ihrer Mutter lebt, lernt er im Zug eine schöne, Zigarren rauchende Unbekannte kennen.</s>
+                  <s>Einige Zeit später erfährt er von Ol’gas Ermordung, und sein Verdacht verstärkt sich, dass eben diese Dame im Zug die Mörderin sein könnte.</s>
+                  <s>Zufällig trifft er die Frau in Sankt Petersburg wieder.</s>
+                  <s>Er erfährt, dass sie geschieden und inzwischen die arrivierte Gattin seines Bekannten Pavel ist.</s>
+                  <s>Von nun an will er sie dazu bewegen, ihm gegenüber ein Geständnis abzulegen.</s>
+                  <s>Das leidenschaftliche Verhältnis, das sich zwischen den beiden entspinnt, verkompliziert die Situation.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Erzähltechnisch sind Sergej und Pavel zwei Figuren, die über Vorzüge und Nachteile im Charakter und Verhalten von Julija und Ol’ga räsonieren und die Institution der bürgerlichen Ehe zur Diskussion stellen: Was bedeutet sie für Frauen und was für Männer, wie werden sie darauf vorbereitet, und wie kann man eine Ehe beenden.</s>
+                  <s>Sergej, der unverheiratete Eheskeptiker, sieht die Ehe für einen 
+            <hi rend="italic">
+                        <foreign xml:lang="ru">raznočinec</foreign>
+                     </hi>, der von seiner Arbeit leben muss, nur als eine zusätzliche Bürde, während sie für Frauen aus seiner Sicht die Erfüllung ihrer Träume und das Ende aller Anstrengungen ist (Achšarumov 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">1992</date>, 
+            <ref>8</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Pavel stößt im Prinzip in dasselbeHorn, wenn er seine Ehe mit der ermordeten Ol’ga beschreibt: Sie habe sich zusammengerissen, bis sie am Ziel war, und sei dann in sich zusammengefallen.</s>
+                  <s>Er meint, dass sie im Prinzip ein guter Mensch war, dass ihr jedoch jegliche Substanz gefehlt habe 
+            <ref>(28)</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Im Roman kommt deutlich zum Ausdruck, dass die Schuld für die Misere der bürgerlichen Ehe in der falschen Mädchenerziehung liegt.</s>
+                  <s>Julija fühlt sich zu nichts anderem als zu einem Leben als wohlsituierte Dame befähigt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie kann sich einen Lebensunterhalt durch Arbeit gar 
+            <pb n="57"/>nicht vorstellen, wie sie ihrem revolutionär-demokratisch eingestellten Künstlerfreund erklärt, der ihr ein gemeinsames Leben vorschlägt 
+            <ref>(60)</ref>.Und Ol’ga wiederum hängt an der romantischen Vorstellung, dass einmal verheiratet für immer verheiratet heißt, egal wie unglücklich man dabei ist.</s>
+                  <s>Mit ihren 25 Jahren gibt sie sich selbst auf, wie Sergej bei seinem Besuch feststellt: Sie lebe nur in der Vergangenheit und wolle sich gar keine Zukunft für sich selbst vorstellen 
+            <ref>(18)</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Das Ansinnen vonPavel, in eine Scheidung einzuwilligen, weist sie entrüstet zurück – dies allerdings nicht nur aus weltanschaulichen Gründen, sondern auch aus Angst vor dem damit verbundenen Skandal.</s>
+                  <s>Im Gegensatz zu Olʼga sieht Julija die Scheidung von ihrem ersten Ehemann als Rettung und lässt Pavel das mit Geld regeln.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Mit der Scheidungsproblematik greift Achšarumov eine Diskussion auf, die in der russischen Gesellschaft der 1860er Jahre mit aller Heftigkeit geführt wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Anders als die westeuropäischen Staaten, die ab Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts Ehegesetze in das bürgerliche Recht verlagerten und Scheidungen erleichterten, verschärfte Russland seine diesbezüglichen Gesetze und beließ der Kirche, genauer gesagt dem Heiligen Synod, das letztinstanzliche Urteil (Mal’cev 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2013</date>).</s>
+                  <s>Dieseranerkannte für eine Scheidung jedoch nur vier Gründe: Einer war die physische Unmöglichkeit, die Ehe zu vollziehen.</s>
+                  <s>Dies wurde aber sehr restriktiv ausgelegt und bezog sich nur auf Impotenz, und das nur zum Zeitpunkt der Eheschließung, was dem Arzt, der eine solche feststellen sollte, zum Zeitpunkt der Scheidung zweifellos Schwierigkeiten bereiten musste.</s>
+                  <s>Der zweite Grund war die lange Abwesenheit unbekannten Aufenthalts eines der Gatten.</s>
+                  <s>Der dritte war die Verurteilung eines Ehepartners zu einer mehrjährigen Haftstrafe unter Aberkennung der bürgerlichen Rechte, was praktisch gleichzusetzen war mit einer Verbannung nach Sibirien (Bil’šaj 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">1959</date>, 
+            <ref>108</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Und der vierte Grund war schließlichEhebruch, der auch dann zur Anwendung kam, wenn sich die Eheleute einvernehmlich scheiden lassen wollten.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Prozedur war in der Tat unangenehm genug, da das eigene Eingeständnis eines Ehebruchs nicht ausreichte.</s>
+                  <s>Man brauchte vielmehr zwei Zeugen, die den Geschlechtsakt gesehen haben mussten, und zwar im Detail.</s>
+                  <s>Trotz dieser Hürden war Ehebruch der häufigste Scheidungsgrund.</s>
+                  <s>Meist nahm der Mann den Part des Ehebrechers auf sich, und Zeugen fanden sich gegen Geld.</s>
+                  <s>Pikante Fälle, vor allem aus dem hohen Adel, wurden gerne in der Presse besprochen, wobei insbesondere die Zeugenpraxis Anlass für Hohn und Spott war.</s>
+                  <s>Billig kam eine Scheidung auch nicht; man musste sie sich leisten können, denn sie kostete 3.000 bis 5.000 Rubel, was etwa 
+            <pb n="58"/>drei Jahresgehältern eines Arztes oder eines Lehrers entsprach (Mal’cev 2013).</s>
+                  <s>Dementsprechend selten waren Scheidungen: Im Jahr 1840 waren es in ganz Russland nur 198, 1880 – 920, und 1890 – 942 ( 
+                  Preobraženskij 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">1897</date> 
+               , zitiert nach  
+                  Mal’cev 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2013</date> 
+               ).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Um diese unhaltbare gesellschaftliche Situation zu modellieren, sind bei Achšarumov sowohl die Mörderin als auch das Mordopfer als ambivalente Figuren angelegt – Julija wird keineswegs in Grund und Boden verdammt, und Olʼga ist nicht nur bemitleidenswert.</s>
+                  <s>Letztere ist aus der Sicht von Sergej zwar lieb und anschmiegsam, kann und will aber nicht auf eigenen Beinen stehen – zart, kränklich und blass weigert sie sich, ihre Zukunft im Rahmen des Möglichen allein zu gestalten.</s>
+                  <s>Die Täterin wiederum wird als eine willensstarke, selbstbewusste, attraktive Frau charakterisiert, die ihr Schicksal beherzt in die Hand nimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie bleibt allerdings den Denkstrukturen ihrer Erziehung verhaftet und denkt nicht daran, sich den Anforderungen und Entbehrungen einer revolutionär-demokratischen Lebensweise auszusetzen.</s>
+                  <s>Da bleiben die Zigarren, die sie ab und zu raucht, und der revolutionär eingestellte Künstlerfreund, den sie, bis er ihr durch Verhaftung abhandenkommt, auf eine zurückhaltende Art liebt und schätzt, die einzigen vorsichtigen Versuche in diese Richtung.</s>
+                  <s>Keine der beiden Frauen nutzt jedenfalls den Handlungsrahmen, den die russische Intelligenzija der damaligen Zeit für erstrebenswert und für machbar hielt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Enttäuschung von Sergej als Intellektuellem teilt offensichtlich auch der Autor, da er weder das Modell Julija noch das Modell Ol’ga als tragfähig für die Zukunft sieht.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Bei aller Komplexität und Ambitioniertheit nimmt der Roman aber auch viele Anleihen bei Schauer- und amourösen Romanen.</s>
+                  <s>Solches war in den frühen russischen Detektivgeschichten zwar durchaus üblich, trägt aber im konkreten Fall nicht zur Stringenz des Romans bei und bläht ihn unnötig auf 152 Seiten auf.</s>
+                  <s>Der letzte Teil des Romans ist der Sühne des Verbrechens und der ausgleichenden Gerechtigkeit gewidmet, da ja weder die Mörderin noch ihr Ehemann der Rechtsprechung zugeführt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Pavel, der maßgeblich an der Planung des Mordes beteiligt war, wird nächtens von Ol’ga als Gespenst heimgesucht und verfällt zudem einem Verfolgungswahn, da er befürchtet, von seiner Frau vergiftet zu werden.</s>
+                  <s>Julija legt schließlich gegenüber Sergej ein Geständnis ab und muss den Mord mit dem Tod ihrer zweijährigen Tochter büßen.</s>
+                  <s>Nach dem frühen Tod ihres Mannes zieht sich Julija aus der Öffentlichkeit zurück, widmet sich ganz der Kinderfürsorge und führt ein gottgefälliges Leben.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Das Ende des Romans ist ein Beispiel für die grundsätzliche Schwierigkeit, die Verbrechen von Frauen verursachen.</s>
+                  <s>Für die russi-
+            <pb break="no" n="59"/>sche Bildungsschicht (wie auch für die europäische) stellten sie insofern eine Herausforderung dar, als sie dem kulturell codierten Bild der Frau diametral zuwiderlaufen: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> Achšarumov steht vor demselben Dilemma wie die viktorianischen Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftsteller und er löst es auf ähnliche Art und Weise wie Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, Mary Elizabeth Braddon, Wilkie Collins oder Arthur Conan Doyle, deren Mörderinnen mit Ächtung, Wahnsinn oder Tod bestraft werden: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> In den meisten literarischen Fällen wird die Mörderin zwar keinem Gerichtsverfahren zugeführt, muss jedoch, wie Morris ausführt, ihre Tat im irdischen Leben auf eine andere Art büßen und, was meist unausgesprochen dahintersteht, sich vor Gott verantworten.</s>
+                  <s>Das Ende der Detektivgeschichte von Škljarevskij, in der die Täterin völlig ungestraft davonkommt, scheint eine große Ausnahme zu sein.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>Der Untersuchungsrichter als Bollwerk</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In den frühen russischen Detektivgeschichten ist der Untersuchungsrichter eine verbreitete Ermittlerfigur.</s>
+                  <s>Von Škljarevskij gibt es z. B. einen ganzen Zyklus von Detektivgeschichten mit dem Titel 
+            <title rend="italic">Rasskazy sudebnogo sledovatelja</title> („Erzählungen eines Untersuchungsrichters“).</s>
+                  <s>Vorreiter für diese Figur war Dostoevskijs Porfirij Petrovič in 
+            <title rend="italic">Prestuplenie i 
+              <pb n="60"/>nakazanie</title>, der den Mörder Raskol’nikov so weit bringt, seine Schuld einzugestehen.</s>
+                  <s>Dostoevskij nähert sich dieser Ermittlerfigur allerdings nur äußerlich, während Škljarevskij und Panov den Untersuchungsrichter zum Ich-Erzähler mit eigenen Hoffnungen und Enttäuschungen machen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Für Russland war das Amt eines Untersuchungsrichters, wie erwähnt, damals ein Novum und Teil der großen Justizreform.</s>
+                  <s>Im Jahr 1864 und in den Folgejahren kamen auf Drängen der liberalen Kräfte Gesetze zustande, die die Vielzahl von Gerichtsarten, Zuständigkeiten und Standesgerichten reduzierten und vor allem auf eine juristische Trennung von Verwaltung und Justiz abzielten.</s>
+                  <s>Bis dahin waren die Gerichtsbehörden von der Gouvernementsverwaltung abhängig: Der Gouverneur nahm auf die Ernennung der Richter Einfluss, und die Ermittlungen im Strafverfahren standen unter seiner Aufsicht.</s>
+                  <s>Bei kleineren Angelegenheiten war die Polizei für die Durchführung von Zivil- und Strafurteilen zuständig – es entschied also kein Gericht, sondern ein Verwaltungsorgan, was der Korruption Tür und Tor öffnete ( 
+                  Puttkamer 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">1999</date>, 
+            <ref>406</ref> 
+               ). Die Justizreform orientierte sich an einem liberalen Rechtsstaatsbegriff und an europäischen Maßstäben.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings wurde sie ohne Rücksicht auf bisherige Gewohnheitsrechte und spezifische Situationen an der Peripherie des Reiches durchgezogen, was zu Reibungen und späteren Gesetzesänderungen führte.</s>
+                  <s>Insgesamt wurde (und wird) die Justizreform aber auch im Westen als eine Glanzleistung des ausgehenden Zarenreichs gelobt 
+            <ref>(405)</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>In Russland war mit der Reform in weitenKreisen zudem die Hoffnung verbunden, dass damit auch eine Veränderung der Gesellschaft einhergehe.</s>
+                  <s>So manche Plädoyers bei Gerichtsverhandlungen zogen daher großes Interesse auf sich und wurden weit über den Anlassfall hinaus diskutiert.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Die Autoren der frühen Detektivgeschichten teilten die Hoffnung auf gesellschaftliche Veränderungen und stellten sich auf die Seite der Justizreform.</s>
+                  <s>Ihren Figuren des Untersuchungsrichters ist es ein Anliegen, die Gesetze besonders korrekt einzuhalten, alle Korruptionsversuche abzuschmettern und sich auch von keiner noch so schönen, betörenden Frau vom richtigen Weg abbringen zu lassen.</s>
+                  <s>Aus diesem Grund sind die russischen Untersuchungsrichter keine besonders individualistischen oder gar exzentrischen Figuren, wie man sie aus französischen oder englischen Detektivgeschichten kennt, sondern eher der Typ eines korrekten, namenlosen Beamten.</s>
+                  <s>Mustergültig ist auch sein Verhältnis zur Polizei, das nicht von Rivalität geprägt ist, sondern vom Bestreben nach Zusammenarbeit.</s>
+                  <s>Die Polizei wird dabei aber sehr wohl auf ihren 
+            <pb n="61"/>Platz als Zuarbeiterin im Ermittlungsprozess verwiesen; und die Kriminalpolizisten (
+            <foreign xml:lang="ru">„syščiki“</foreign>), die im Gegensatz zum Untersuchungsrichterauch verdeckte Ermittlungen durchführen dürfen, erfahren mehrmals eine lobende Erwähnung.</s>
+               </p>
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+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelle: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
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+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine <hi rend="bo">Novelle</hi> (<gap reason="template" instant="false"/> ‚neu‘, <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        ‚Neuigkeit‘) ist eine kürzere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erz%C3%A4hlung">Erzählung</ref> (siehe auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurzepik">Kurzepik</ref>) in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosa">Prosaform</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Als Gattung lässt sie sich nur schwer definieren und oft nur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_negativo">ex
+                           negativo</ref> von anderen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textsorte">Textsorten</ref> abgrenzen.</s>
+                  <s>Hinsichtlich des Umfangs bemerkte Hugo Aust, die Novelle habe oft
+                        eine mittlere Länge, was sich darin zeige, dass sie in einem Zug zu lesen
+                        sei.</s>
+                  <s>Der Begriff <hi rend="it">Novelle</hi> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminutiv">diminuierte</ref> [verkleinerte] Form) weist auf eine Neuheit hin.</s>
+                  <s>Häufig wird auch der Bezug zur italienischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</ref>-Kirche <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_Novella">Santa Maria Novella</ref> angeführt, der auf die Zeit der Entstehung
+                        schließen lässt.</s>
+                  <s>Als Begründer der Novellentradition gilt der Italiener <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</ref> aufgrund des von ihm verfassten <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decamerone">Decamerone</ref>
+                     </hi> (‚Zehntagewerk‘).<lb/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das deutsche Wort <hi rend="it">Novelle</hi> und das
+                        englische Wort <hi rend="it">novel</hi> sind <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falscher_Freund">falsche Freunde</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">Novel</hi> bezeichnet einen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman">Roman</ref>,
+                        keine Novelle.</s>
+                  <s>Die im Deutschen als <hi rend="it">Novelle</hi> bezeichnete
+                        Prosaform heißt auf Englisch <hi rend="it">novella</hi> oder <hi rend="it">novelette</hi>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Charakteristika der Novelle als literarische Gattung </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Charakteristik </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Eine Novelle ist eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erz%C3%A4hlung">Erzählung</ref> von kürzerer bis mittlerer Länge.</s>
+                        <s>Oft wird darin ein Konflikt zwischen Ordnung und Chaos
+                              beschrieben, was zu einem Normenbruch und Einmaligkeit führt.</s>
+                        <s>Erzählt wird in der Regel ein einziges Ereignis, daher kommt
+                              auch der Ausdruck, die Novelle sei der Singularität verpflichtet.</s>
+                        <s>Novellen sind in der Regel sehr klar strukturiert und
+                              verfügen über eine geschlossene Form. Oftmals besitzt die Novelle ein
+                              Leitmotiv sowie ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingsymbol">(Ding-)</ref>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol">Symbol</ref>.</s>
+                        <s>In vielen Novellen hat auch der Zufall eine zentrale
+                              Bedeutung und ist oft das konstituierende Element.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe">Goethe</ref> formuliert 1827 in einem Gespräch mit
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Peter_Eckermann">Johann Peter Eckermann</ref> als wesentliches Merkmal
+                              der Novelle „eine sich ereignete unerhörte Begebenheit“.
+                              In Goethes Werk <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelle_%28Goethe%29">Novelle</ref>
+                           </hi> ist von einem „seltsamen, unerhörten Ereignis“ die
+                              Rede.</s>
+                        <s>Diese Begebenheit stellt oft den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripetie">Wendepunkt</ref> der Handlung dar.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Martini">Fritz Martini</ref> zufolge verlagert sich jedoch im
+                              19. Jahrhundert der Schwerpunkt weg vom unerwarteten, rätselhaften
+                              Faktum und hin zum „psychologisch besonderen Charakter, seiner
+                              inneren seelischen Bewegung und seinem Geschick“.<ptr target="WPD17.N00.29485-f1" rend="ref"/> Oftmals leiden die Protagonisten dann an Isolation,
+                              Ausgrenzung oder einem Mangel an Kommunikation.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Weitere Kennzeichen der Novelle sind eine
+                              straffe, überwiegend lineare Handlungsführung, der Wechsel zwischen
+                              einem stark raffenden Handlungsbericht und dem gezielten Einsatz
+                              szenisch und breiter ausgebildeter Partien an den Höhe- und
+                              Wendepunkten (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripetie">Peripetie</ref>), während die Handlung am Schluss
+                              meist ausklingt und die Zukunft der Figuren nur angedeutet wird.</s>
+                        <s>Typisch sind Vorausdeutungs- und Integrationstechniken wie
+                              Leitmotive, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingsymbol">Dingsymbole</ref>, die Dominanz des Ereignishaften
+                              sowie die Einbettung der Haupthandlung in eine Rahmenhandlung.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Abgrenzung zu Drama und Kurzgeschichte </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Storm">Theodor Storm</ref> schrieb, die Novelle sei aufgrund
+                              ihres komponierten und strukturierten Aufbaus „die Schwester
+                              des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramatik">Dramas</ref>“. Aufgrund der Kürze von Novellen liegt
+                              zumeist nur eine knappe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition_%28Literatur%29">Exposition</ref> vor, die den Leser direkt ins
+                              Geschehen leitet.</s>
+                        <s>Im Unterschied zur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurzgeschichte">Kurzgeschichte</ref> sind für die Novelle typisch eine konsequente
+                              Ausformulierung des zentralen Konflikts, eine Tendenz zur
+                              geschlossenen Form, ein dialogischer Charakter sowie eine hohe
+                              Dichte.</s>
+                        <s>Die Novellenforschung hat herausgearbeitet, dass die Novelle
+                              oft symbolisch gedeutet werden kann und Sachverhalte verdichtet und so
+                              einen – nach Goethe – „unauslotbaren
+                              Sinn-Raum“ schafft.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Novellentheorie nach Heyse („Falkentheorie“)
+                           </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Regelmäßig wird im Zusammenhang mit der Novelle die von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Heyse">Paul Heyse</ref> formulierte Falkentheorie angeführt, die die
+                              beiden Kategorien <hi rend="it">Silhouette</hi> (Konzentration auf das
+                              Grundmotiv im Handlungsverlauf) und <hi rend="it">Falke</hi> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingsymbol">Dingsymbol</ref>/Symbol für das jeweilige Problem der Novelle) als
+                              novellentypisch benennt.</s>
+                        <s>Heyse führt seine <hi rend="it">Falkentheorie</hi> anhand von
+                              Boccaccios <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falkennovelle">Falkennovelle</ref> aus dem Decamerone (9. Novelle
+                              des 5. Tages) aus, erklärt dabei aber den Charakter novellistischer
+                              Literatur nur bruchstückhaft und missverständlich, insbesondere weil
+                              die von ihm gewählte Novelle überhaupt nicht typisch für die Novellen
+                              des Decamerone ist.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Beispiele für Novellen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Innerhalb der deutschen Literatur erlebte das Novellenschaffen
+                           seinen Höhepunkt im 19. Jh., vor allem bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autor">Autoren</ref>, die dem poetischen Realismus zuzurechnen sind.</s>
+                     <s>Bekannte Verfasser von Novellen in der deutschen Literatur sind
+                           zum Beispiel <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist">Heinrich von Kleist</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Ferdinand_Meyer">Conrad Ferdinand Meyer</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike">Eduard Mörike</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Storm">Theodor Storm</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Heyse">Paul
+                              Heyse</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Keller">Gottfried Keller</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Fontane">Theodor Fontane</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhart_Hauptmann">Gerhart Hauptmann</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Zweig">Stefan Zweig</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_B%C3%BCchner">Georg Büchner</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annette_von_Droste-H%C3%BClshoff">Annette von Droste-Hülshoff</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Mann">Thomas Mann</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Raabe">Wilhelm Raabe</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck">Ludwig Tieck</ref> sowie in der Gegenwart <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartmut_Lange_%28Schriftsteller%29">Hartmut Lange</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Roth">Patrick Roth</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwe_Timm">Uwe
+                              Timm</ref>.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Bekannte deutschsprachige Novellen sind zum
+                           Beispiel: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="table" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Sonderformen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahmennovelle">Rahmennovelle</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> chinesische Novelle <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaoshuo">Xiaoshuo</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Literatur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Rolf Füllmann: <hi rend="it">Einführung in die
+                                 Novelle.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Kommentierte Bibliographie und Personenregister.</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s> Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt
+                              2010, ISBN 978-3-534-21599-7. </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfried_Wehle">Winfried Wehle</ref>, Horst Thomé: <hi rend="it">Novelle.</hi> In: Klaus Weimar, Harald Fricke, Jan-Dirk Müller
+                              (Hrsg.): <hi rend="it">Reallexikon der deutschen
+                                 Literaturwissenschaft.</hi> Band 2: <hi rend="it">H–O.</hi>
+                              Berlin/ New York 2000, S. 725–731 (<ref target="http://edoc.ku-eichstaett.de/4279/1/Novelle_1.pdf">edoc.ku-eichstaett.de</ref> [PDF]). </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Weblinks </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="http://gso.gbv.de/DB=2.1/SET=1/TTL=1/CMD?ACT=SRCHA&amp;amp;IKT=4&amp;amp;SRT=YOP&amp;amp;TRM=Novelle">Forschungsliteratur zum Stichwort Novelle</ref> im
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemeinsamer_Bibliotheksverbund">GBV</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="http://www.logos.li/2009/07/goethe-und-schlegel-aspekte.html">Goethe und Schlegel: Der Ursprung der deutschen
+                                 Novelle</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="http://www.oliverwieters.de/?p=2097">Ian
+                                 McEwan: Anmerkungen zur Novelle (2012).</ref>
+                        </s>
+                        <ref target="http://www.oliverwieters.de/?p=2097">
+                           <s>Übersetzt von Oliver Wieters</s>
+                        </ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.novellenliteratur.de/">Seite über
+                              Novellen &amp;amp; Märchennovellen, mit vielen Beispielen und einem
+                              Blick auf internationale Gattungskunde</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.freiereferate.de/deutsch/merkmale-einer-novelle">Merkmale und Unterschiede kurz zusammengefasst</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.M00.11323">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/M00.11323 Max Liebermann, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Liebermann: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>FredericusMagnus, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Max Liebermann</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Humanities</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Er zog sich aus der Öffentlichkeit zurück,
+                              während kaum einer seiner Weggefährten ihm beistand und die Treue
+                              hielt.</s>
+                  <s>Einzig Käthe Kollwitz suchte noch Zugang zu ihm.</s>
+                  <s>1934 entstand ein letztes Selbstbildnis.</s>
+                  <s>Einem seiner letzten Besucher gestand Liebermann: „Ich
+                              lebe nur noch aus Hass. […] Ich schaue nicht mehr aus dem
+                              Fenster dieser Zimmer – ich will die neue Welt um mich herum
+                              nicht sehen.“<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f74" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Am 8. Februar 1935 starb Max Liebermann in
+                              seinem Haus am Pariser Platz.</s>
+                  <s>Käthe Kollwitz berichtete, er sei abends um sieben still
+                                 eingeschlafen.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f75" rend="ref"/> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totenmaske">Totenmaske</ref> fertigte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno_Breker">Arno Breker</ref> an, der in dieser Zeit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler">Hitlers</ref> bevorzugter Bildhauer wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Die Fotografin <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Rohrbach">Charlotte Rohrbach</ref> nahm die Gipsmaske auf.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f76" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Liebermann, Martha
+                                 Stolperstein.JPG|mini|hochkant|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stolpersteine">Stolperstein</ref> für Martha Liebermann am Pariser Platz 7 in
+                              Berlin.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt; Ein Stein für Martha Liebermann, FAZ vom
+                              18. Juni 2005&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]] </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Sein Tod war den bereits gleichgeschalteten
+                              Medien keine Nachricht wert, er fand – wenn überhaupt –
+                              nur am Rande Erwähnung.</s>
+                  <s>Die Akademie der Künste, die mittlerweile zu einem Instrument
+                              der Nationalsozialisten geworden war, lehnte jede Ehrung des
+                              Altpräsidenten ab.</s>
+                  <s>So erschien zu seiner Beerdigung auf dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCdischer_Friedhof_Sch%C3%B6nhauser_Allee">Jüdischen Friedhof Schönhauser Allee</ref> am 11.
+                              Februar 1935 auch kein offizieller Vertreter – weder der
+                              Akademie noch der Stadt, deren Ehrenbürger er seit 1927 war.</s>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestapo">Gestapo</ref> hatte im Voraus sogar die Teilnahme an
+                              der Bestattung untersagt, in der Befürchtung, sie könnte zu einer
+                              Demonstration für die Kunstfreiheit werden.</s>
+                  <s>Dennoch kamen annähernd 100 Freunde und Verwandte.</s>
+                  <s>Unter den Trauernden waren <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4the_Kollwitz">Käthe Kollwitz</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Purrmann">Hans Purrmann</ref> und seine Ehefrau <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathilde_Vollmoeller-Purrmann">Mathilde Vollmoeller-Purrmann</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_Kardorff">Konrad von Kardorff</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Nagel">Otto Nagel</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Sauerbruch">Ferdinand Sauerbruch</ref> mit seinem Sohn <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sauerbruch">Hans Sauerbruch</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Cassirer">Bruno Cassirer</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Kolbe">Georg Kolbe</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_J._Friedl%C3%A4nder">Max J. Friedländer</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Sarre">Friedrich Sarre</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Goldschmidt">Adolph Goldschmidt</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Gemäß <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Friedl%C3%A4nder">Saul Friedländer</ref> nahmen nur drei
+                              „arische“ Künstler an der Beerdigung teil.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f77" rend="ref"/> In seiner Trauerrede wies <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Scheffler_%28Kunstkritiker%29">Karl Scheffler</ref> darauf hin, dass man mit
+                              Liebermann nicht nur einen großen Künstler, sondern eine Epoche zu
+                              Grabe trage, für die er symbolisch stand.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f78" rend="ref"/> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehrengrab">Ehrengrabst</ref>ätte des Landes Berlin befindet sich im Feld
+                              E.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Obschon der Kunsthändler <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Feilchenfeldt">Walter Feilchenfeldt</ref> und der Sammler <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Reinhart">Oskar Reinhart</ref> versuchten, Ende 1941 Martha Liebermann in
+                              die Schweiz zu holen, und Reinhart bereit war, eine größere Summe zur
+                              Verfügung zu stellen, um sie aus Deutschland zu retten, scheiterte die
+                              Aktion an der Willkür des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS-Regime">NS-Regimes</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f79" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Als eine Deportation ins <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/KZ_Theresienstadt">KZ Theresienstadt</ref> unmittelbar drohte, nahm
+                              Martha Liebermann eine Überdosis <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbital">Veronal</ref> und starb am 10. März 1943 im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCdisches_Krankenhaus_Berlin">Jüdischen Krankenhaus von Berlin</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Etwa ein halbes Jahr später beschlagnahmte die Gestapo den
+                              Großteil von Liebermanns berühmter privater Kunstsammlung.</s>
+                  <s>Das Palais Liebermann am Pariser Platz versank bald darauf in
+                                 Trümmern.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f80" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Weitere Werke </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Freistunde im Waisenhaus.jpg|mini|<hi rend="it">Freistunde im Amsterdamer Waisenhaus</hi>, 1881/1882 – ehemals
+                           Nationalgalerie, heute <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A4delsches_Kunstinstitut">Städelsches Kunstinstitut</ref> in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main">Frankfurt am Main</ref>]] </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Rezeption </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>1919 veröffentlichte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Struck_%28Maler%29">Hermann Struck</ref> die dritte Auflage seines Werks <hi rend="it">Die Kunst des Radierens</hi> und würdigte erstmals neben
+                           Altmeistern wie Dürer und Rembrandt auch die jungen Meister wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka">Oskar Kokoschka</ref>, Max Liebermann und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Oppler">Ernst Oppler</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Das Sammeln von Radierungen trat aus dem Schatten hervor, nur
+                           eine billige Variante des Sammelns von Gemälden zu sein.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f81" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Februar 1936 veranstaltete der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturbund_Deutscher_Juden">Kulturbund Deutscher Juden</ref> anlässlich Liebermanns
+                           ersten Todestages eine Gedächtnisausstellung in den Räumlichkeiten der
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neue_Synagoge_%28Berlin%29">Neuen Synagogen</ref>-Gemeinde.</s>
+                  <s>Innerhalb von sechs Wochen zog sie rund 6.000 Besucher an.</s>
+                  <s>Als schließlich 1943 auch Martha Liebermann verstarb, wurde der
+                           gesamte Nachlass „zugunsten des Deutschen Reiches“
+                           eingezogen.</s>
+                  <s>Davon betroffen waren nicht nur Gemälde, die er selbst
+                           geschaffen hatte, sondern auch weite Teile der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammlung_Liebermann">Sammlung Liebermann</ref>: Max Liebermann hatte zeit
+                           seines Lebens eine der bedeutendsten privaten Kunstsammlungen Berlins
+                           zusammengetragen, die auch einige Werke Manets aufwies.</s>
+                  <s>Mit der Beschlagnahme der Sammlung riss das NS-Regime eine
+                           einzigartige Kollektion auseinander, die in dieser Form nie wieder
+                           zusammengetragen werden konnte.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f82" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeit_des_Nationalsozialismus">Zeit des Nationalsozialismus</ref> waren auch Werke
+                           Liebermanns vom Verdikt der „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entartete_Kunst">Entarteten Kunst</ref>“ betroffen.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings wurden nur sechs Arbeiten aus Museen
+                           beschlagnahmt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Ächtung seines Werkes betraf weniger seine Arbeiten, in
+                           denen man kaum außerordentliche Expressivität erkennen konnte, als seine
+                           Persönlichkeit.</s>
+                  <s>Als liberaler, jüdischer Großbürger, der in der Weimarer
+                           Republik zu nationalen Ehrungen gekommen war und internationales Renommee
+                           besaß, war Liebermann für die NS-Ideologen kein Künstler, dessen Andenken
+                           es zu fördern galt.</s>
+                  <s>So setzte schon bald nach der Machtergreifung eine langsame
+                           Reduzierung der Liebermann-Bestände in öffentlichen Sammlungen ein.</s>
+                  <s>Im Bombenhagel gingen insgesamt vier Gemälde verloren, 114 bis
+                           1933 erworbene Werke blieben bis 1945 in Museen erhalten.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f83" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Max Liebermann Bildnis Wilhelm
+                           Bode.jpg|mini|hochkant|Das <hi rend="it">Bildnis <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Bode">Wilhelm von Bode</ref>
+                     </hi>, 1904, ist beispielhaft für Liebermanns Porträtwerk.</s>
+                  <s>Es konnte bereits 1947 wieder in der Nationalgalerie ausgestellt
+                           werden]] </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Anlässlich des 100.</s>
+                  <s>Geburtstags des Künstlers kamen am 20. Juli 1947 in der
+                           Nationalgalerie erstmals nach dem Krieg erhaltengebliebene Werke zur
+                           Ausstellung.</s>
+                  <s>Gleichzeitig zeigten das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieders%C3%A4chsisches_Landesmuseum_Hannover">Niedersächsische Landesmuseum</ref> und die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger_Kunsthalle">Hamburger Kunsthalle</ref> ihre verbliebenen
+                           Liebermann-Arbeiten.</s>
+                  <s>Zwei Jahre später konnte der Direktor der Nationalgalerie, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ortwin_Rave">Paul Ortwin Rave</ref>, mehrere Räume wiedereröffnen.</s>
+                  <s>So kamen sechs Gemälde Liebermanns (<hi rend="it">Freistunde im
+                              Amsterdamer Waisenhaus</hi>, <hi rend="it">Schusterwerkstatt</hi>, <hi rend="it">Gänserupferinnen</hi>, <hi rend="it">Flachsscheuer in
+                              Laren</hi>, <hi rend="it">Bildnis Wilhelm von Bode</hi> und <hi rend="it">Bildnis Richard Strauss</hi>) zur dauerhaften
+                           Ausstellung.</s>
+                  <s>In den nächsten Jahrzehnten vergrößerte sich die Zahl der
+                           Liebermann-Werke in deutschen Museen durch Rückkehr angestammter Arbeiten
+                           und Neuerwerbungen – ihre Zahl liegt heute etwa doppelt so hoch
+                           wie vor 1945.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f84" rend="ref"/> Hauptwerke Liebermanns zogen als neue Akzente in
+                           westdeutsche Sammlungen ein, wie etwa die <hi rend="it">Rasenbleiche</hi>
+                           1954 in das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallraf-Richartz-Museum">Wallraf-Richartz-Museum</ref> in Köln oder die <hi rend="it">Papageienallee</hi> 1955 in die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthalle_Bremen">Kunsthalle Bremen</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Stiftungen von Privatsammlern und Rückerwerb kamen hinzu.</s>
+                  <s>1954 fand im Niedersächsischen Landesmuseum anlässlich des
+                           20. Todestages des Malers eine Ausstellung unter der Schirmherrschaft des
+                           Bundespräsidenten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Heuss">Theodor Heuss</ref>, der sich selbst für den Erwerb von
+                           Liebermann-Werken durch westdeutsche Museen starkgemacht hatte,
+                           statt.</s>
+                  <s>Von einem breiten Publikum wurde dies als
+                           „Wiederentdeckung“ angesehen.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f85" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Vergleich zur Rehabilitierung des Werkes in den
+                           Sammlungen fiel die kunsthistorische Aufarbeitung Max Liebermanns in den
+                           ersten Nachkriegsjahrzehnten bescheiden aus.</s>
+                  <s>1947 erschien in Potsdam ein Heft mit 48 Abbildungen der
+                           bedeutendsten Werke Liebermanns, verbunden mit einem Essay von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Kurth">Willy
+                              Kurth</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f86" rend="ref"/> 1953 wurde die seit 1906 erschienene
+                           Liebermann-Biographie von Karl Scheffler neu aufgelegt: In ihrem
+                           Mittelpunkt stand die Erkenntnis, dass <hi rend="it">aus dem Revolutionär
+                              von gestern der Klassiker von heute</hi> geworden ist.</s>
+                  <s>Die Veröffentlichung schloss mit den Worten: „Er ist in
+                           Deutschland der letzte bürgerliche Maler großen Stils
+                              gewesen.“<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f87" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>1961 erschien die erste neue Monographie, die sich
+                           mit Liebermanns Werk befasste.</s>
+                  <s>Der Autor, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Stuttmann_%28Kunsthistoriker%29">Ferdinand Stuttmann</ref>, versuchte darin, das lange
+                           Ausbleiben einer kunsthistorischen Neuaufarbeitung des Liebermann-Werkes
+                           zu erklären.</s>
+                  <s>Seiner Ansicht nach habe sich das „Gesicht der bildenden
+                           Kunst grundlegend geändert“, sodass die Kunst Liebermanns
+                           „der Zeit nach dem Kriege nicht mehr die Problematik und den Stoff
+                           zu einer aktuellen Darstellung“ biete.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f88" rend="ref"/> Stuttmann verstand sich ganz als Kunst<hi rend="it">historiker</hi>
+                           und wollte Liebermann als geschichtliche Persönlichkeit Gerechtigkeit
+                           widerfahren lassen.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f89" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Max Liebermann - Die
+                              Rasenbleiche.jpg|mini|links|<hi rend="it">Die Rasenbleiche</hi>
+                           (1882/1883) gehörte zu den Neuerwerbungen der Nachkriegszeit durch
+                           westdeutsche Museen, hier das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallraf-Richartz-Museum">Wallraf-Richartz-Museum</ref> in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ln">Köln</ref>]] </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Während in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Bundesrepublik_Deutschland_%28bis_1990%29">Bundesrepublik</ref> einerseits Anschluss an die
+                           internationale Kunstentwicklung, von der man in der NS-Zeit
+                           ausgeschlossen war, gesucht und gefunden wurde und sich gleichzeitig die
+                           historischen Werke rehabilitierten, verlief die Entwicklung in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Demokratische_Republik">DDR</ref> grundlegend anders: Unter <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion">sowjetischem</ref> Einfluss entstand dort ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialistischer_Realismus">Sozialistischer Realismus</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Werke von Künstlern der Vergangenheit, die Kritik an der jeweils
+                           „herrschenden Klasse“ übten, wurden zum „nationalen
+                           Kulturerbe“ erklärt und sollten die sozialistische Ordnung
+                           stützen.</s>
+                  <s>So wurde auch Max Liebermann, der humanistisch-preußische Jude
+                           und fortschrittlicher Großbürger, für den Sozialismus uminterpretiert und
+                           aus der Tradition Menzels, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Kr%C3%BCger">Krügers</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Blechen">Blechens</ref> herausgelöst und einseitig in die Reihe von Käthe
+                           Kollwitz, Heinrich Zille und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Baluschek">Hans Baluschek</ref> gestellt.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f90" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>1965 fand in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ost-Berlin">Ost-Berlin</ref> eine Ausstellung der Akademie der Künste statt, in
+                           der Liebermanns Frühwerk und seine Porträtmalerei gezeigt wurden.</s>
+                  <s>Besondere Kontroversen wurden um das Bild „<hi rend="it">Flachsscheuer in Laren</hi>“ geführt.</s>
+                  <s>Stuttmann schrieb dazu: „<hi rend="it">Liebermann
+                              schafft, jedenfalls ganz ohne Absicht, ein anklagendes Bild der
+                              sozialen Zustände seiner Zeit.</hi>“<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f91" rend="ref"/> Darauf entgegnete Karl Römpler in seinem 1958 in Dresden erschienenen
+                           Werk <hi rend="it">Der deutsche Impressionismus</hi>: „In einem
+                           Bild wie der <hi rend="it">Flachsscheuer</hi> […] fehlt die
+                           Anklage gegen ein System, das sich nicht scheut, Jugendliche
+                           auszubeuten.</s>
+                  <s>Hier ist Liebermann ganz Kind seiner Klasse.“<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f92" rend="ref"/> Günter Meiszner meinte dagegen im Gemälde, wie er in seiner 1974 in
+                           Leipzig veröffentlichten, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxismus">marxistisch</ref> geprägten Liebermann-Monographie, der ersten in der
+                           DDR, schrieb, ein „Bekenntnisbild für den arbeitenden
+                           Menschen“ zu erkennen.</s>
+                  <s>Dies verdeutlicht die hitzigen und nicht selten politischen
+                           Diskussionen in der Kunstwelt, die Liebermanns Werk erfuhr.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f93" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>1973 veröffentlichten Karl-Heinz und Annegret Janda
+                           eine erste ausführliche Darstellung der Kunstsammlung Liebermanns.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f94" rend="ref"/> 1970 erschien „<hi rend="it">Max Liebermann als
+                           Zeichner</hi>“ anlässlich einer Ausstellung im
+                           Kunstgeschichtlichen Institut der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg-Universit%C3%A4t_Mainz">Universität Mainz</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die große Ausstellung des Gesamtwerkes von 1954
+                           fand bis Ende der 1970er-Jahre keine Nachfolge.</s>
+                  <s>In kleinen Ausstellungen, wie 1968 <hi rend="it">„Max
+                              Liebermann in Hamburg“</hi>, konnte lediglich ein Ausschnitt
+                           des künstlerischen Schaffens Liebermanns gezeigt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Meistens fanden sich seine Werke ohnehin in
+                           Überblicksausstellungen, die auch andere Künstler seiner Zeit
+                           behandelten.</s>
+                  <s>Auf diese Art kamen Arbeiten Liebermanns auch häufig im Ausland,
+                           insbesondere in den Vereinigten Staaten, zur Ausstellung.</s>
+                  <s>Herausragende Beachtung hat sein Werk international nicht
+                           gefunden – Max Liebermanns Name blieb eng verknüpft mit der
+                           deutschen Ausprägung des Impressionismus, der im europäischen Kontext ein
+                           „zu spät gekommener“ war.</s>
+                  <s>So gehört er in der kunsthistorischen Einordnung zwar zu den
+                           nationalen Größen in Deutschland, aber international nur zur zweiten
+                           Garde der Impressionisten.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f95" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/File%3ABerlin-max-liebermann-pariser-platz-gedenktafel.JPG">File:Berlin-max-liebermann-pariser-platz-gedenktafel.JPG</ref>
+                           [[Datei:Liebermann Villa1 Berlin.JPG|mini|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Gedenktafel">Gedenktafel</ref> für Max Liebermann an der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebermann-Villa">Liebermann-Villa</ref> am <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Wannsee">Wannsee</ref>]] </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>1979/1980 fand in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neue_Nationalgalerie">Neuen Nationalgalerie</ref> in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/West-Berlin">West-Berlin</ref> die Ausstellung „Max Liebermann in seiner
+                           Zeit“ statt.</s>
+                  <s>Eine große Retrospektive war aber seit dem Bau der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliner_Mauer">Berliner Mauer</ref> und dem daraus resultierenden Fehlen der
+                           ostdeutschen Bestände unmöglich geworden.</s>
+                  <s>Hier wurde aber der Versuch gemacht, Liebermann in Zusammenhang
+                           mit Werken von Zeitgenossen aus Deutschland, Frankreich und Amerika
+                           darzustellen.</s>
+                  <s>1985 gedachte die DDR seines 50. Todestages mit der sogenannten
+                           „Schwarzweiß-Ausstellung“ im Kupferstichkabinett der
+                           Staatlichen Museen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese wurde mit dem Eigenbesitz an Zeichnungen und Druckgrafiken
+                           aus ostdeutschen Beständen bestritten.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f96" rend="ref"/> In Ost und West erschienen
+                           anlässlich des 50. Todestages mehrere Monographien, wie die
+                           biographischen Werke Bernd Küsters und Lothar Brauners.
+                           [[Datei:Liebermann, Max - Zwei Reiter am Strand - Gurlitt.jpg|mini|<hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwei_Reiter_am_Strand">Zwei Reiter am Strand</ref>
+                     </hi>, 1901, aus dem Schwabinger Kunstfund (vermutlich bis 1939 Sammlung
+                           David Friedmann, Breslau)]] Seit der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Wiedervereinigung">Deutschen Wiedervereinigung</ref> hat Max Liebermann
+                           eine Renaissance erlebt: In mehreren großen Retrospektiven konnten
+                           Gesamtdarstellungen seines Werkes vorgenommen werden und durch die
+                           Gründung der Max-Liebermann-Gesellschaft 1995, die mittlerweile über
+                           1200 Mitglieder aufweist, die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebermann-Villa">Liebermann-Villa</ref> am Wannsee als Gedenkstätte dem Publikum
+                           zugänglich gemacht werden.</s>
+                  <s>Nach Restaurierungs- und Wiederherstellungsarbeiten zwischen
+                           2002 und 2006, die auch den Wannseegarten betrafen, besteht dort nun ein
+                           bleibendes Museum zum Gedenken an Max Liebermann und der Beschäftigung
+                           mit seinem Werk.</s>
+                  <s>2006/2007 fand eine gemeinsame Ausstellung des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieders%C3%A4chsisches_Landesmuseum_Hannover">Niedersächsischen Landesmuseums Hannover</ref>, des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assen">Drents
+                              Museums Assen</ref> und des Rijksmuseums in Amsterdam unter dem Titel
+                              <hi rend="it">Max Liebermann und die Holländer</hi> (niederländischer
+                           Titel: <hi rend="it">Max Liebermann en Holland</hi>) statt, die die Werke
+                           Liebermanns auch dem niederländischen Publikum näher brachte.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f97" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine von mehreren existierenden Versionen des
+                           Gemäldes <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwei_Reiter_am_Strand">Zwei Reiter am Strand</ref>
+                     </hi> von 1901 (restituiert im Mai 2015<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f98" rend="ref"/> ) wurde während einer
+                           Pressekonferenz der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staatsanwaltschaft_Augsburg">Staatsanwaltschaft Augsburg</ref> zum <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwabinger_Kunstfund">Schwabinger Kunstfund</ref> am 5. November 2013
+                           beispielhaft zusammen mit weiteren zehn Werken anderer Künstler, darunter
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall">Marc Chagall</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Dix">Otto
+                              Dix</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Marc">Franz Marc</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Matisse">Henri Matisse</ref>, gezeigt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie stammten aus der Sammlung des Kunsthändlers <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildebrand_Gurlitt">Hildebrand Gurlitt</ref>, die bei seinem Sohn <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Gurlitt_%28Kunstsammler%29">Cornelius</ref> im Februar 2012 in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwabing">Schwabing</ref> beschlagnahmt wurde.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Seit 2011 erscheint im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Wissenschafts-Verlag">Deutschen Wissenschafts-Verlag (DWV)</ref> unter der
+                           Herausgeberschaft der Max-Liebermann-Gesellschaft (Berlin) die auf acht
+                           Bände angelegte wissenschaftliche Edition der mehr als 2600 Briefe Max
+                           Liebermanns sowie von etwa 500 Gegenbriefen (s. o. Kapitel <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%23Weitere_Werke">Weitere Werke</ref>).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Ausstellungen (nach 2000) </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunst-_und_Ausstellungshalle_der_Bundesrepublik_Deutschland">Bundeskunsthalle</ref> in Bonn zeigte bis zum 11.
+                              September 2011 die Ausstellung <hi rend="it">Max Liebermann.</hi>
+                  </s>
+                  <hi rend="it">
+                     <s>Wegbereiter der Moderne</s>
+                  </hi>
+                  <s>.</s>
+                  <s>Danach war die Ausstellung in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger_Kunsthalle">Hamburger Kunsthalle</ref> zu sehen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Vom 4. Juli bis 19. Oktober 2014 fand im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_Oskar_Reinhart">Museum Oskar Reinhart</ref> in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winterthur">Winterthur</ref> die Ausstellung <hi rend="it">Max Liebermann und
+                                 die Schweiz</hi> mit rund 90 Gemälden, Aquarellen, Pastellen und
+                              Handzeichnungen aus Schweizer Museen und Privatbesitz statt, wozu ein
+                              reich illustrierter Katalog im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirmer_Verlag">Hirmer Verlag</ref> erschienen ist.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Vom 22. Oktober 2016 bis zum 26. Februar 2017
+                              findet in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthalle_Bremen">Kunsthalle Bremen</ref> die Ausstellung <hi rend="it">Max Liebermann – vom Freizeitvergnügen zum modernen
+                                 Sport</hi> statt.</s>
+                  <s>Sie ist in Kooperation mit der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebermann-Villa">Liebermann-Villa</ref> in Berlin entstanden, wo sie
+                              vom 19. März bis zum 26. Juni 2017 zu sehen sein wird.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.11323-f99" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Literatur </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Film </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross"> Weblinks </head>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.H04.90177">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/H04.90177 Hermeneutik, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutik: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Zenith4237, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Hermeneutik</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Humanities</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s> Die <hi rend="bo">Hermeneutik</hi> (<gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     <hi rend="it">hermēneúein</hi> ‚erklären‘,
+                        ‚auslegen‘, ‚übersetzen‘) ist eine Theorie der
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation">Interpretation</ref> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text">Texten</ref>
+                        und des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstehen">Verstehens</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Beim Verstehen verwendet der Mensch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol">Symbole</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Er ist in eine Welt von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeichen">Zeichen</ref> und in eine Gemeinschaft eingebunden, die eine gemeinsame
+                        Sprache verwendet.</s>
+                  <s>Nicht nur in Texte, sondern in alle menschlichen Schöpfungen ist
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_%28Semantik%29">Sinn</ref> eingegangen; diesen herauszulesen, ist eine
+                        hermeneutische Aufgabe.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antike">Antike</ref>
+                        und im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter">Mittelalter</ref> diente die Hermeneutik als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaft">Wissenschaft</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunst">Kunst</ref> der Auslegung (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exegese">Exegese</ref>) grundlegender Texte, besonders der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibel">Bibel</ref>
+                        und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesetz">Gesetze</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuzeit">Neuzeit</ref> weitete sich ihr Anwendungsbereich aus.</s>
+                  <s>Sie entwickelte sich zu einer allgemeinen Lehre von den
+                        Voraussetzungen und Methoden sachgerechter Interpretation und zu einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie">Philosophie</ref> des Verstehens.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f1" rend="ref"/> Mit der von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</ref> entscheidend beförderten Einsicht in die Grenzen der
+                        menschlichen Erkenntnisfähigkeit stellte sich für die Hermeneutik seit dem
+                        19. Jahrhundert unter anderem das Problem der geschichtlichen Gebundenheit
+                        menschlichen Denkens und Verstehens.</s>
+                  <s>Als einflussreichster Vertreter der philosophischen Hermeneutik im
+                        20. Jahrhundert wendete <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</ref> diese Beschränkung ins Positive und stellte das
+                        Verstehen in den Zusammenhang eines prinzipiell nicht zu beendenden
+                        Gesprächs über die Deutung wichtiger Zeugnisse der geschichtlichen und
+                        kulturellen Überlieferung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Begriff <hi rend="it">Hermeneutik</hi> ist als
+                        solcher erst in der Neuzeit entstanden und wurde als Buchtitel erstmals vom
+                        Straßburger Philosophen und Theologen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Conrad_Dannhauer">Johann Conrad Dannhauer</ref> verwendet.</s>
+                  <s>Die allgemeine Hermeneutik beschäftigt sich mit der Auslegung von
+                        Texten oder von Zeichen im Allgemeinen.</s>
+                  <s>Die besondere Hermeneutik behandelt die mit der Auslegung von
+                        Texten verbundenen Probleme, wie sie sich aus den einzelnen Fächern der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtswissenschaft">Rechtswissenschaft</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theologie">Theologie</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturwissenschaft">Literaturwissenschaft</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichtswissenschaft">Geschichtswissenschaft</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstgeschichte">Kunstgeschichte</ref> ergeben.</s>
+                  <s>Sie hat traditionsgemäß einen stärkeren Bezug zu den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geisteswissenschaften">Geisteswissenschaften</ref> und diente bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</ref> zu deren methodologischer Begründung.</s>
+                  <s>Auch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexion_%28Philosophie%29">Reflexion</ref> der Bedingungen des Auslegens, Deutens und
+                        Verstehens nicht-textgebundener Werke der Musik und ihrer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_%28Musik%29">Interpretation</ref> oder der Werke der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildende_Kunst">Bildenden Kunst</ref> wird Hermeneutik genannt.</s>
+                  <s>Nach <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealismus">idealistischer</ref> Auffassung ist Verstehen ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sein_%28Philosophie%29">Sein</ref>, in dem die Welt sich selbst auslegt.</s>
+                  <s>Ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition">intuitiver</ref> Ansatz begreift Verstehen als etwas
+                        Unmittelbares, das aller Reflexion vorausgeht und aller Erkenntnis und dem
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskurs">diskursiven</ref> Denken zugrundeliegt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Begriffliche Herkunft </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Hermes Musei Capitolini MC60.jpg|mini|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes">Hermes</ref>, der Götterbote]] Im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikes_Griechenland">antiken Griechenland</ref> gab das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orakel_von_Delphi">Orakel von Delphi</ref> weder konkrete Anweisungen, noch verbarg es
+                           seinen Sinn völlig, vielmehr deutete es an.</s>
+                  <s>Die hermeneutische Kunst sollte die Sprache der Götter
+                              erhellen.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f2" rend="ref"/> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymologie">etymologische</ref> Ableitung der Hermeneutik von dem Götterboten
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes">Hermes</ref> ist umstritten,<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f3" rend="ref"/> eine gemeinsame Wurzel aber
+                              anzunehmen.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f4" rend="ref"/> In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griechische_Mythologie">griechischen Mythologie</ref> war Hermes nicht nur der
+                           Überbringer von Nachrichten der Götter, sondern auch der Übersetzer
+                           dieser Botschaften.</s>
+                  <s>Ohne seine Interpretation blieben sie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryptologie">kryptisch</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Hermes gilt in dieser Mythologie zudem als der Erfinder der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrift">Schrift</ref> und der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprache">Sprache</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f5" rend="ref"/> Zum selben Wortstamm gehört der
+                           ἑρμηνεύς (Hermeneus),
+                           der bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon">Platon</ref> in zweierlei Gestalt vorkommt: als Dichter, der die
+                           Botschaft der Götter vermittelt, und als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsode">Rhapsode</ref>, der die Werke der Dichter interpretiert.</s>
+                  <s>Als
+                           ἑρμηνευτικὴ
+                           τέχνη (hermeneutikè téchne, téchne: altgr.:
+                           Fähigkeit, Kunstfertigkeit, Handwerk) ist der Begriff
+                           ἑρμηνευτική
+                           zuerst bei Platon im Zusammenhang mit religiöser Weissagung
+                              überliefert.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f6" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Geschichtliche Entwicklung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Obgleich die begriffliche Fixierung der Hermeneutik und ihre
+                           systematische Entwicklung zu einem eigenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftstheorie">wissenschaftstheoretischen</ref> Bereich erst in die
+                           frühe Neuzeit fallen, reichen ihre historischen Wurzeln sehr viel weiter
+                           zurück.</s>
+                  <s>Hermeneutik als Kunst der Interpretation hat ihren Ursprung in
+                           der antiken <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exegese">Exegese</ref>, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judentum">jüdischen</ref> Auslegung des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanach">Tanach</ref>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f7" rend="ref"/> und in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altindisch">altindischen</ref> Lehren.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                           Die Interpretation biblischer Texte wurde dann zum eigentlichen Motor der
+                           Entwicklung einer ausdifferenzierten Hermeneutik als wissenschaftlicher
+                              Disziplin.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Antike Hermeneutik </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Erkundung der Bedeutung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Hermeneutik hatte in der griechischen Religion, Mythologie
+                                 und in der antiken Philosophie frühe Anwendungsbereiche.</s>
+                  <s>Die Kunst der Weissagung erkundete die verborgene
+                                 Bedeutung eines Objektes und wurde <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantik">Mantik</ref>
+                                 (μαντεία) genannt.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f10" rend="ref"/> Die Interpretationslehre beschäftigte sich mit
+                                 der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedeutung_%28Sprachphilosophie%29%23Bedeutung_in_der_Philosophiegeschichte">Bedeutung</ref> hinter den offensichtlichen
+                                 Bedeutungen.</s>
+                  <s>So wurde bei der Exegese (exégesis = Auslegung,
+                                 Erläuterung) der Werke <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer">Homers</ref> zunächst die Bedeutung der Wörter und der Sätze
+                                 kommentiert.</s>
+                  <s>Erst auf einer tieferen Ebene ging es darum, die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegorie">allegorische</ref>
+                                 (αλληγορειν
+                                 – etwas anders ausdrücken) Bedeutung zu diskutieren und
+                                    auszulegen.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f11" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokrates">Sokrates</ref> provozierte seine Mitbürger mit der Frage, wie
+                                 es in Wahrheit um ihr künftiges Schicksal und ihre Seele stehe.</s>
+                  <s>Er unterzog ihre Antworten einer scharfen Bedeutungskritik
+                                 und versuchte zu zeigen, dass alles hinterfragt werden muss, um
+                                 einen festen Ausgangsboden zu gewinnen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Platon </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nach <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon">Platon</ref> sind die zwei Seiten des Seins, die
+                                 es zu verstehen gilt, die sinnlich wahrnehmbare Beschaffenheit und
+                                 das nicht sinnlich wahrnehmbare <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ousia">wesenhafte Sein</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die Seele strebe nicht nach der sinnlich wahrnehmbaren
+                                 Beschaffenheit, sondern nach dem wesenhaften Sein.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f12" rend="ref"/> Bei jedem der Dinge komme die vollständige
+                                 geistige Erkenntnis in fünf Schritten zustande: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Annäherung an das innere Wesen der Dinge
+                                 könne nur frei von verfälschenden Leidenschaften erfolgen: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Aristoteles </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles">Aristoteles</ref> steht neben der Aussage als Ausdruck und als
+                                 elementare Grundlage des logischen Denkens jegliche Aussage auch
+                                 immer in dem Fragebezug zu dem, was mit ihr gemeint ist.</s>
+                  <s>Bereits das Aussagen selbst wurde im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikes_Griechenland">klassischen Griechenland</ref> als ein
+                                 Interpretieren
+                                 (ἑρμηνεύειν)
+                                    verstanden.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f14" rend="ref"/> Die Aussage wandelt ein
+                                 innerlich Gedachtes in geäußerte Sprache um.</s>
+                  <s>Die Auslegung des Gesprochenen erfordert den umgekehrten
+                                 Weg von der Äußerung zur gedachten Aussageabsicht: „Das
+                                 ἑρμηνεύειν
+                                 erweist sich also durchaus als ein Vorgang der Sinnvermittlung, die
+                                 vom Äußeren auf ein Inneres von Sinn zurückgeht.“<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f15" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Die Allegorese </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der antiken Auslegung von Texten sowohl in
+                                 Griechenland als auch im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judentum">Judentum</ref> war die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegorese">Allegorese</ref> von Bedeutung.</s>
+                  <s>Dabei geht es um die Ermittlung eines verborgenen Sinns
+                                 der Texte, der sich von dem wörtlichen Sinn unterscheidet.</s>
+                  <s>Einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Entwicklung allegorischer
+                                 Auslegungsmethoden leistete die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa">Stoa</ref>, die ihrerseits die jüdische <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblische_Exegese">Bibelinterpretation</ref> insbesondere des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philon_von_Alexandria">Philon von Alexandria</ref> beeinflusste.</s>
+                  <s>Auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origenes">Origenes</ref> als frühchristlicher Kommentator
+                                 der Bibel ging davon aus, dass neben dem wörtlichen Sinn in der
+                                 Heiligen Schrift vor allem ein höherer geistiger und seelischer
+                                 Sinn präsent ist.</s>
+                  <s>Die frühchristliche <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogmatik">Dogmatik</ref> musste sich mit dem Bedeutungskonflikt zwischen
+                                 der besonderen Heilsgeschichte des jüdischen Volkes, wie sie das
+                                 Alte Testament enthält, und der universalistischen Verkündigung
+                                 Jesu im Neuen Testament auseinandersetzen.</s>
+                  <s>Beeinflusst von neuplatonischen Vorstellungen lehrte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinus">Augustinus</ref> den Aufstieg des Geistes über den wörtlichen
+                                 und den moralischen zum geistlichen Sinn.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f16" rend="ref"/> Nach seiner Auffassung sind die Dinge auch als
+                                 Zeichen zu verstehen (res et signa).</s>
+                  <s>Selbst das Gebiet der Dinge verlangt demnach eine
+                                 Erschließung des Sinns der Schöpfung.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Mittelalterliche Exegese </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im christlichen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter">Mittelalter</ref> wurde die Tradition der antiken <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exegese">Exegese</ref> in ihrer Grundstruktur der Zweiteilung
+                              fortgesetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Gegenstand war die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibel">Bibel</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristik">patristische</ref> Hermeneutik, die Origenes und
+                              Augustinus zusammengefasst hatten, wurde durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Cassianus">Cassian</ref> zur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierfacher_Schriftsinn">Methode des vierfachen Schriftsinns</ref> entwickelt
+                              und systematisch dargestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Grenzen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textkritik">Textkritik</ref> wurden durch eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doktrin">Doktrin</ref>, den exegetischen Kode<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f17" rend="ref"/> bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Grund war der Konflikt zwischen der Dogmatik der Auslegung
+                              und den Ergebnissen damals neuer Erforschungen.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f11" rend="ref"/> Nach dieser Doktrin besaß die Bibel einen äußeren
+                              Mantel, den <hi rend="it">cortex</hi>, der einen tieferen Kern, den
+                                 <hi rend="it">nucleus</hi> umzog.</s>
+                  <s>Auf der <hi rend="it">Cortex</hi>-Ebene wurden Grammatik und
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantik">Semantik</ref> hinsichtlich des wörtlichen Sinns (<hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensus_litteralis">sensus litteralis</ref>
+                     </hi>) bzw. des historischen Sinns (<hi rend="it">sensus
+                                 historicus</hi>) hin interpretiert, auf der Kern-Ebene (<hi rend="it">nucleus</hi>) die tiefere Bedeutung, die <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sententia">sententia</ref>
+                     </hi>, erforscht.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu wurde der <hi rend="it">nucleus</hi> in drei Tiefen der
+                              Ausformungen von Bedeutung unterteilt.</s>
+                  <s>Auf der ersten <hi rend="it">Nucleus</hi>-Stufe wurde die
+                              moralische Bedeutung (<hi rend="it">sensus tropologicus</hi>)
+                              erforscht, von der sich das Verhalten der Menschen untereinander
+                              leiten lassen sollte.</s>
+                  <s>Auf der nächsttieferen standen die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christologie">christologischen</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekklesiologie">kirchlichen</ref> Bedeutungen (<hi rend="it">sensus
+                                 allegoricus</hi>), mit denen die Glaubensgehalte expliziert werden
+                              sollten.</s>
+                  <s>Auf der tiefsten Ebene des <hi rend="it">nucleus</hi> ging es
+                              in der Exegese um den <hi rend="it">sensus anagogicus</hi>, den
+                              hinführenden Sinn, der die Tiefe des Geheimnisses der Offenbarung
+                              deutlich macht und dadurch auf Künftiges hinweist.</s>
+                  <s>Die tiefsten Bedeutungen, die die himmlischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysterium">Mysterien</ref> betrafen, galten als für die Menschen im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesseits">Diesseits</ref> nicht erschließbar.</s>
+                  <s>Sie werden ihnen erst im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenseits">Jenseits</ref> offenbart (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offenbarung">Offenbarung</ref>).<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f11" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Rezeption des römischen Rechts </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Tradition der juristischen Hermeneutik gewann eine neue
+                              Bedeutung, als die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtswissenschaft">Rechtswissenschaft</ref> im Kampf des aufstrebenden
+                              städtischen Bürgertums gegen den Adel zu einer ökonomisch und
+                              politisch relevanten Kunst wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Das Ringen um die richtige Auslegung juristischer Texte
+                              führte zu einer säkularisierten hermeneutischen Methodenlehre.</s>
+                  <s>Sie wurde zu einem Auslegungsverfahren für Denkprodukte der
+                              Vergangenheit.</s>
+                  <s>Unter Berufung auf anerkannte historische Autoritäten sollten
+                              juristische Prozesse beeinflusst werden.</s>
+                  <s>Es galt nicht nur, die römischen Juristen zu verstehen,
+                              sondern zugleich die Dogmatik des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Recht">römischen Rechtes</ref> auf die neuzeitliche Welt
+                              anzuwenden.</s>
+                  <s>Daraus erwuchs der Rechtswissenschaft eine enge Bindung der
+                              hermeneutischen an die dogmatische Aufgabe.</s>
+                  <s>Die Auslegungslehre konnte sich nicht allein auf die Absicht
+                              des Gesetzgebers stützen.</s>
+                  <s>Sie musste vielmehr den „Grund des Gesetzes“
+                              zum hermeneutischen Maßstab erheben.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Reformation </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:PhilippMelanchthon.jpg|mini|Gemälde von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_der_%C3%84ltere">Lucas Cranach d. Ä.</ref> 1532 Philipp Melanchthon]]
+                           </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Rückgewinnung des Maßgeblichen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Gegenstand der Hermeneutik, die sich mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation">Reformation</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismus">Humanismus</ref> Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts neu entfaltete,
+                                 war die <hi rend="it">richtige</hi> Auslegung von solchen Texten,
+                                 die das eigentlich Maßgebliche enthalten, das es zurückzugewinnen
+                                 gilt.</s>
+                  <s>Dies galt insbesondere für die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblische_Hermeneutik">Biblische Hermeneutik</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die zu ihrer Legitimation wesentlich auf die Geltung und
+                                 Auslegung der Bibel gestützte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantismus">protestantische</ref> Reformation hat der
+                                 Hermeneutik nachhaltig neue Impulse gegeben.</s>
+                  <s>Die Reformatoren polemisierten gegen die Tradition der
+                                 Kirchenlehre und deren Behandlung des Textes mit der allegorischen
+                                 Methode.</s>
+                  <s>Sie forderten die Rückbesinnung auf den Wortlaut der
+                                 Heiligen Schrift.</s>
+                  <s>Die Exegese sollte objektiv, objektgebunden und frei von
+                                 aller subjektiven Willkür sein.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Luther und Melanchthon </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther">Martin Luther</ref> betonte, dass der Schlüssel
+                                 zum Verständnis der Bibel in ihr selbst angelegt sei („sui
+                                 ipsius interpres“). Jeder Christenmensch besitze die
+                                 Fähigkeit, die Schrift selbst auszulegen und zu verstehen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_scriptura">Sola scriptura</ref>-Prinzip).</s>
+                  <s>Nach Luther soll man der Schrift nicht mit einer
+                                 vorgefassten Meinung begegnen, sondern auf ihren eigenen Wortlaut
+                                 achten.</s>
+                  <s>Die Schriftauslegung darf die Schrift nicht daran hindern,
+                                 ihre eigene Sache zu sagen, da sonst der Ausleger der Schrift ins
+                                 Wort fällt.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f18" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</ref> stützte sich bei der
+                                 Ausarbeitung einer frühprotestantischen Hermeneutik auf die
+                                 humanistische Rhetoriktradition.</s>
+                  <s>Das begriffliche Vokabular entstammte durchweg der antiken
+                                    <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorik">Rhetorik</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Melanchthon deutete die antiken rhetorischen Grundbegriffe
+                                 für das rechte Studium der Bücher (bonis auctoribus legendis)
+                                 um.</s>
+                  <s>Die Forderung, alles Einzelne aus dem Ganzen zu verstehen,
+                                 geht auf das Verhältnis von „caput et membra“ (Haupt
+                                 und Glieder) zurück: Dem Haupt sind die anderen Glieder
+                                 untergeordnet.</s>
+                  <s>Damit verbunden war eine Akzentverschiebung weg von der
+                                 Konzeption einer wirksamen eigenen Rede („ars bene
+                                 dicendi“) hin zur verständigen Lektüre und Deutung von
+                                 Texten („ars bene legendi“): „Die
+                                 Beschäftigung mit der rhetorischen Theorie dient nicht dazu,
+                                 Beredsamkeit zu erzeugen, sondern für die auszubildende Jugend ein
+                                 methodisches Rüstzeug bereitzustellen, um elaborierte Texte
+                                 kompetent zu beurteilen.“<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f19" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Matthias Flacius </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Melanchthons Schüler <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Flacius">Matthias Flacius</ref> betonte die dogmatische
+                                 Einheit des Kanon, die er gegen die Einzelauslegung der
+                                 neutestamentlichen Schriften ausspielte.</s>
+                  <s>Damit schränkte er den lutherischen Grundsatz
+                                 „sacra scriptura sui ipsius interpres“ stark ein.</s>
+                  <s>Er unterstrich die Notwendigkeit gediegener
+                                 Sprachkenntnisse für das Verständnis vermeintlich dunkler
+                                 Bibelstellen, deren Klärung er durch das systematische Heranziehen
+                                 von Parallelstellen der Heiligen Schrift betrieb.</s>
+                  <s>Oft konnte er dabei an Untersuchungen des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinus_von_Hippo">Augustinus</ref> und anderer Kirchenväter
+                                 anknüpfen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Schwierigkeiten, die das Verstehen der Bibel
+                                 stellenweise hemmten seien rein sprachlich oder grammatisch:
+                                 „Die Sprache ist nämlich ein Zeichen oder ein Bild der Dinge
+                                 und gleichsam eine Art Brille, durch welche wir die Dinge selbst
+                                 anschauen.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn daher die Sprache entweder an sich oder für uns
+                                 dunkel ist, so erkennen wir mühsam durch sie die Sachen
+                                    selbst.“<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f20" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Renaissance </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AJohann_Conrad_Dannhauer.jpg">miniatur|Johann Conrad Dannhauer</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Ars critica </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</ref> entwickelte sich die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textkritik">Textkritik</ref> (ars critica) als eigenständige Disziplin.</s>
+                  <s>Sie bemühte sich um die ursprüngliche Gestalt der
+                                 Texte.</s>
+                  <s>Die bestehende Tradition wurde durch die Aufdeckung ihrer
+                                 verschütteten Ursprünge aufgebrochen oder verwandelt.</s>
+                  <s>Der verdeckte und entstellte Sinn der Bibel und der
+                                 Klassiker sollte wieder aufgesucht und erneuert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Im Rückgang zu den originalen Quellen sollte ein neues
+                                 Verständnis gewonnen werden für das, was durch Verzerrung und
+                                 Missbrauch verdorben war: die Bibel durch die Lehrtradition der
+                                 Kirche, die Klassiker durch das barbarische Latein der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholastik">Scholastik</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Das neu belebte Studium der überlieferten Klassiker der
+                                 römischen, dann auch der griechischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antike">Antike</ref> führte in Verbindung mit dem Buchdruck zu einer
+                                 erheblichen Ausweitung der Auslegung und Deutung von Texten.</s>
+                  <s>Es erwachte das Bedürfnis nach einer neuen Methodenlehre
+                                 der überall aufsprießenden Wissenschaften.</s>
+                  <s>Ein neues <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organon_%28Aristoteles%29">Organon</ref> des Wissens sollte das
+                                 aristotelische ersetzen oder komplettieren.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f21" rend="ref"/> Nun erst kam die Hermeneutik zu ihrem
+                                    Begriff.<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f22" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Johann Conrad Dannhauer </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Conrad_Dannhauer">Johann Conrad Dannhauer</ref> konzipierte seine
+                                 bislang wenig beachtete Schrift „<hi rend="it">Idea Boni
+                                    Interpretis</hi>“<ptr target="WPD17.H04.90177-f23" rend="ref"/> von 1630 als
+                                 „hermeneutica generalis“. 1654 veröffentlichte er
+                                 sein Werk „Hermeneutica sacra sive methodus exponendarum
+                                 sacrarum litterarum“: Zur wahren Interpretation und
+                                 „Beseitigung der Dunkelheit“ sind erforderlich die
+                                 Unbestechlichkeit des Urteils, die Untersuchung des Vorangehenden
+                                 und des Folgenden, die Beachtung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogie_%28Sprachwissenschaft%29">Analogie</ref>, der Kernaussage (Scopus) und der
+                                 Zielsetzung des Textes, die Kenntnis des Sprachgebrauchs durch den
+                                 Autor sowie die Berücksichtigung von Übersetzungsfehlern.</s>
+                  <s>Dannhauer hat die Bedeutung der allgemeinen Hermeneutik
+                                 hervorgehoben: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.548.30010">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/548.30010 5. Sinfonie (Sibelius), In:
+                     Wikipedia - URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/5._Sinfonie_(Sibelius): Wikipedia,
+                     2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>2003:65:EC66:C176:895E:6DB3:3206:55A5, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>5. Sinfonie (Sibelius)</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Humanities</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="bo">Sinfonie Nr. 5</hi> in Es-Dur op. 82 ist ein
+                        großes Werk für Orchester in drei Sätzen von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Sibelius">Jean
+                           Sibelius</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Geschichte </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Sibelius wurde von der finnischen Regierung beauftragt, eine
+                           Sinfonie aus Anlass seines 50. Geburtstages zu schreiben, der zum
+                           nationalen Feiertag deklariert wurde.<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f1" rend="ref"/> Die Sinfonie wurde
+                           ursprünglich 1915 komponiert, 1916 und dann nochmals 1919
+                           überarbeitet.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die originale Version wurde – nach dem
+                           Muster der bisherigen Sinfonien – am 8. Dezember 1915 in Helsinki
+                           unter Sibelius’ Leitung vom Sinfonischen Orchester Helsinki
+                           uraufgeführt.</s>
+                     <s>Die zweite Version, von der sich nur ein Teil erhalten hat,
+                           wurde zuerst genau ein Jahr später vom Orchester von Turun Soitannollinen
+                           Seura in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turku">Turku</ref> aufgeführt.</s>
+                     <s>Die heute meistens gespielte dritte Version wurde am 24.
+                           November 1919 in Helsinki wieder vom Sinfonischen Orchester Helsinki
+                           unter Sibelius’ Leitung erstaufgeführt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Das Jahrzehnt von 1910 bis 1920 war durch einen
+                           generellen Wandel in der sinfonischen Form gekennzeichnet, wie sie sich
+                           über ein Jahrhundert lang erhalten hatte.</s>
+                     <s>1909 hatte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Sch%C3%B6nberg">Arnold Schönberg</ref> in seinen <hi rend="it">Fünf
+                              Stücken für Orchester</hi> op. 16 die Entwicklung zu mehr dissonanten
+                           und chromatischen Harmonien vorangetrieben.</s>
+                     <s>Von 1910 bis 1912 veröffentlichte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</ref> drei revolutionäre Ballette: <hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Feuervogel">Der Feuervogel</ref>
+                        </hi>, <hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petruschka_%28Ballett%29">Petruschka</ref>
+                        </hi> und <hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_sacre_du_printemps">Le sacre du printemps</ref>
+                        </hi>.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Ravel">Maurice Ravel</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Debussy">Claude Debussy</ref> waren dabei, ihre neue <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionismus_%28Musik%29">impressionistische</ref> Musik zu entwickeln.</s>
+                     <s>1911 fand die Premiere von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Strauss">Richard Strauss</ref>’ Oper <hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Rosenkavalier">Der Rosenkavalier</ref>
+                        </hi> statt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Obwohl Sibelius zu dieser Zeit bereits seit über 20
+                           Jahren Popularität genoss, bedauerte er, dass seine vorangegangene
+                           Sinfonie, die 1911 uraufgeführte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/4._Sinfonie_%28Sibelius%29">4.</ref>
+                     </s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/4._Sinfonie_%28Sibelius%29">
+                        <s>Sinfonie</s>
+                     </ref>
+                     <s>, wenig öffentliche Anerkennung erfahren hatte.</s>
+                     <s>James Hepokoski meint, Sibelius habe damals begonnen, sich
+                           selbst im Wettkampf der Modernisierer in der Musik als nicht gleichwertig
+                           anerkannt zu sehen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Sibelius war zu dieser Zeit unschlüssig, ob er
+                           seinen Stil mehr in Richtung der vom Publikum gewünschten aktuellen
+                           Moderne ändern oder das fortsetzen sollte, was am besten zu ihm
+                           passte.</s>
+                     <s>Die erste Version der fünften Sinfonie blieb bei seinem
+                           Orchesterstil einer harmonischen Klangfülle, Holzbläsermelodien in
+                           parallelen Linien und einer reichen melodischen Entwicklung.</s>
+                     <s>Der strukturelle Stil wurde aber geändert.</s>
+                     <s>James Hepokoski nennt diese Veränderung
+                           „Sonatendeformation“. Der Erfolg dieser Methode spiegelt
+                           sich in der Popularität, die die fünfte Sinfonie bis heute behalten
+                           hat.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die erste Version der Fünften hat noch viel mit der
+                           modernistischeren 4. Sinfonie gemeinsam, indem sie einige bitonale
+                           Passagen enthält; die 1919er Version wirkt dagegen eher zielorientiert
+                           und klassizistisch.</s>
+                     <s>Sibelius kommentierte seine Revisionen so: „Ich wollte
+                           meiner Sinfonie eine andere – humanere – Form geben,
+                           erdbezogener, lebendiger.“<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Instrumentierung </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Sinfonie ist für 2 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%B6te">Flöten</ref>, 2 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oboe">Oboen</ref>, 2 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klarinette">Klarinetten</ref>, 2 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagott">Fagotte</ref>, 4 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldhorn">Waldhörner</ref>, 3 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trompete">Trompeten</ref>, 3 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posaune">Posaunen</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauke">Pauke</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streichinstrument">Streicher</ref> gesetzt.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Struktur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Der Satzaufbau der Sinfonie ist ungewöhnlich: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ol">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Tempo molto moderato – Allegro moderato
+                              (ma poco a poco stretto) – Vivace molto – Presto
+                              – Più Presto </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Andante mosso, quasi allegretto – Poco a
+                              poco stretto – Tranquillo – Poco a poco stretto –
+                              Ritenuto al tempo I </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Allegro molto – Misterioso – Un
+                              pochettino largamente – Largamente assai – Un pochettino
+                              stretto </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Der erste Satz beginnt langsam, endet aber mit
+                           einem schnellen Scherzo.</s>
+                     <s>Der zweite Satz hat weder ein langsames noch ein schnelles
+                           Tempo, sondern eher die Form eines ruhigen Intermezzos.</s>
+                     <s>Dann folgt der dritte Satz, der schnell beginnt, aber langsam
+                           endet.</s>
+                     <s>Die gesamte Sinfonie dauert ca. 32 Minuten.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Erster Satz </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Sibelius hatte eigentlich vor, zwei getrennte Sätze zu
+                              komponieren, verband dann aber doch die langsame Einleitung mit dem
+                              schnelleren walzerförmigen Scherzo zu einer Einheit.</s>
+                        <s>Der Satz beginnt mit einem Hornruf, der bereits viel vom
+                              musikalischen Material enthält.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Obwohl der Satz in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatensatzform">Sonatensatzform</ref> geschrieben ist, vertreten
+                              Sibelius’ Schüler Cecil Gray (1935),<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f3" rend="ref"/> Gerald Abraham (1947),<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f4" rend="ref"/> Simon Parmet (1955),<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f5" rend="ref"/> Robert Layton (1965)<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f6" rend="ref"/> und James Hepokoski (1993)<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f7" rend="ref"/> sehr unterschiedliche Ansichten über seine formale
+                              Unterteilung.</s>
+                        <s>Sie argumentieren mit der Trennung in eigentlich zwei Teile,
+                              mit dem Vorhandensein von eigentlich zwei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition_%28Musik%29">Expositionen</ref>, sie unterscheiden sich in der
+                              Beschreibung des Scherzos und des Trios und sind sich uneins über den
+                              genauen Beginn der Rekapitulation und der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coda_%28Musik%29">Coda</ref>.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <div n="4" type="section">
+                        <head type="cross">
+                           <s> Unterschiedliche analytische Sichtweisen </s>
+                        </head>
+                        <p>
+                           <s>Cecil Gray, der erste Musikwissenschaftler, der sich mit
+                                 der Struktur der 5. Sinfonie beschäftigte, erwähnt in seiner
+                                 Diskussion die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonatensatzform">Sonatensatzform</ref> überhaupt nicht, analysiert
+                                 die beiden musikalischen Themen aber so, als würde er automatisch
+                                 davon ausgehen, es handele sich um eine Sonatensatzform.</s>
+                        </p>
+                        <p>
+                           <s>Gerald Abraham war einer der Ersten, die das
+                                 Werk in den Begriffen der Sonate erklärten.</s>
+                           <s>Er legt klar dar, wo seiner Meinung nach jeder Abschnitt
+                                 anfängt und warum.</s>
+                           <s>Das Werk beginne mit einer doppelten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition_%28Musik%29">Exposition</ref>, jede mit deutlich ausgeprägtem
+                                 A- und B-Gruppen-Material, um dann in die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durchf%C3%BChrung_%28Musik%29">Durchführung</ref> dieses Materials
+                                 überzugehen.</s>
+                           <s>Den melodischen Abschnitt, der mit dem Allegro moderato
+                                 beginnt, beschreibt Abraham als Scherzo und Trio und als Ersatz für
+                                 die zweite Hälfte der Durchführung.</s>
+                        </p>
+                        <p>
+                           <s>Robert Layton widerspricht Abraham jedoch und
+                                 behauptet, das Scherzo sei der Beginn der Reprise.</s>
+                        </p>
+                        <p>
+                           <s>Die meisten Musikwissenschaftler stimmten mit
+                                 dieser Analyse überein, bis 1993 James Hepokoskis Untersuchung
+                                 erschien (<hi rend="it">Sibelius: Symphony No. 5</hi>), die eine
+                                 völlig andere Interpretation anbietet.</s>
+                           <s>Seiner Ansicht nach kann die Sinfonie nur in Begriffen
+                                 einer „rotational form“, also Rotationsform
+                                 beschrieben werden.</s>
+                           <s>Hepokoski bleibt zwar bei der üblichen Aufteilung des
+                                 Satzes in doppelte Exposition, Scherzo und Reprise, entwickelt aber
+                                 ein neues Vokabular, um die musikalische Entwicklung zu
+                                 beschreiben.</s>
+                           <s>Sibelius erlaube in vielen seiner Werke dem musikalischen
+                                 Material, sich selbst eine Form zu wählen, und zwar aus der
+                                 Notwendigkeit der Musik selbst heraus und nicht nach vorgeformten
+                                 Normen des 18. oder 19. Jahrhunderts.</s>
+                           <s>Er benutze eine zirkuläre Form von Rotation oder Strophe,
+                                 die die verschiedenen Abteilungen des Materials durchziehe und sich
+                                 währenddessen weiterentwickele.</s>
+                           <s>Hepokoski bleibt in seiner Analyse also bei der generellen
+                                 Lokalisierung der Abschnittsübergänge, wie sie frühere Autoren
+                                 beschrieben haben, und stimmt mit ihnen überein, dass der erste
+                                 Satz prinzipiell in den Begriffen einer Sonatensatzform beschrieben
+                                 werden kann.</s>
+                        </p>
+                     </div>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Zweiter Satz </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Dieser ruhige Satz ist durch mehrere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variation_%28Musik%29">Variationen</ref> eines Themas gekennzeichnet, das
+                              zuerst von den Streichern in pizzicato vorgetragen und dann von den
+                              Flöten aufgegriffen wird.</s>
+                        <s>Zusammen mit den Holzbläsern ist die Stimmung der Musik
+                              lieblich und warmherzig.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Dritter Satz </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Der Satz beginnt mit einer schnellen, in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notenwert">Sechzehnteln</ref> gespielten Melodie in den vierfach geteilten
+                              zweiten Geigen.</s>
+                        <s>Nach der Exposition dieses Themas beginnt ein neues
+                              beherrschendes Motiv in den Hörnern, zu dem Sibelius in seinen
+                              Tagebüchern notierte, er habe 16 Schwäne über den See bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainola">Ainola</ref> fliegen sehen; dieser Abschnitt mit seiner elegischen
+                              Melodie in Streichern und Holzbläsern wird deswegen auch als
+                              Schwanenhymne bezeichnet.</s>
+                        <s>Nach abruptem Übergang wird in einer kurzen Durchführung das
+                              erste Thema variiert, bevor die Melodie des Schwanenthemas in es-Moll
+                              zurückkehrt und zusammen mit dem Ostinato-Motiv der Blechbläser in
+                              einem langsamen Aufbau gesteigert wird.</s>
+                        <s>Dabei verwendet Sibelius starke Dissonanzen und setzt die für
+                              ihn typischen langen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgelpunkt">Orgelpunkte</ref> mit großem Effekt ein, zunächst über des, dann
+                              über c, bis triumphal die Ausgangstonart Es-Dur wieder erreicht
+                              wird.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Die Sinfonie endet so schlicht wie ungewöhnlich:
+                              Die sechs Akkorde der Schlusskadenz werden einzeln gespielt,
+                              unterbrochen von unregelmäßigen, langen Pausen.</s>
+                        <s>Dieser Schluss erschien vielen Interpreten, die der
+                              Spätromantik verpflichtet waren, als zu zerrissen; zum Beispiel auf
+                              der Aufnahme <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_von_Karajan">Herbert von Karajans</ref> sind die Pausen deutlich
+                              gekürzt.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Die Sinfonie in der populären Kultur </head>
+                  <p>Das Schwanenruf-Motiv ist in einer ganzen Reihe von Pop-Songs
+                        aufgenommen worden, beispielsweise „Popsicles and Icicles“ von
+                        den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Murmaids">Murmaids</ref> (1963), „Beach Baby“ von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Class_%28Band%29">The First Class</ref> (1974), „Since
+                        Yesterday“ von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_Switchblade">Strawberry Switchblade</ref> (1984) und „Oh What A
+                        Life“ von Play People (2008).<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f8" rend="ref"/> Der Beginn des ersten Satzes
+                        wird am Anfang von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Coltrane">John Coltrane</ref>’s <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Love_Supreme">A
+                           Love Supreme</ref> zitiert; es wird allerdings angenommen, dass Coltrane
+                        sich nicht direkt bei Sibelius bedient hat, sondern eher bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein">Leonard Bernsteins</ref> Musical <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Town">On the
+                           Town</ref>, das seinerseits die Sinfonie zitiert.<ptr target="WPD17.548.30010-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Weblinks </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.sibelius.fi/">Informationen zu
+                              Leben und Werk (finn., schwed., engl.)</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/index.cfm?fuseaction=composition&amp;amp;composition_id=2865">Programmnotizen vom Kennedy Center</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.musicweb-international.com/Programme_Notes/sibelius_sym5.htm">Programmnotizen von Paul Serotsky</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/libraries/Libraries.php?launch=1&amp;amp;language=en&amp;amp;page=Treasures&amp;amp;country=Finland">Originales Manuskript, 1919</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.F09.32318">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/F09.32318 Fabel, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabel: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Scholless, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Fabel</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Humanities</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>[[Datei:Reineke Fuchs.jpg|mini|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Kaulbach">Wilhelm von Kaulbach</ref>: Illustration (1857) zu <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe">Goethes</ref>
+                  <hi rend="it">
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reineke_Fuchs_%28Goethe%29">Reineke Fuchs</ref>
+                  </hi>]] [[Datei:San Giovanni Evangelista in Ravenna, funeral of the
+                        fox.jpg|mini|<hi rend="it">Der Leichenzug des Fuchses</hi> nach einer Fabel
+                     von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84sop">Äsop</ref> auf einem Kirchenfußboden von 273 in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna">Ravenna</ref>]] </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="bo">Fabel</hi> (lateinisch <hi rend="it">fabula</hi>,
+                        „Geschichte, Erzählung, Sage“) bezeichnet eine in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versdichtung">Vers</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosa">Prosa</ref> verfasste, kürzere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erz%C3%A4hlung">Erzählung</ref> mit belehrender Absicht, in der vor allem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiere">Tiere</ref>,
+                        aber auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzen">Pflanzen</ref> und andere Dinge oder fabelhafte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mischwesen">Mischwesen</ref> menschliche Eigenschaften besitzen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikation">Personifikation</ref>) und auch menschlich handeln (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildebene_%28Literaturwissenschaft%29">Bildebene</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Die Dramatik der Fabelhandlung zielt auf eine Schlusspointe hin, an
+                        die sich meist eine allgemeingültige <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral">Moral</ref>
+                        (Sachebene) anschließt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Gattungsgeschichte </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Außereuropäisches Altertum </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>In <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer">Sumer</ref> wurden Mitte des 3. Jahrtausends v. Chr.
+                              Erzählungen wie die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabel_vom_klugen_Wolf_und_den_neun_dummen_W%C3%B6lfen">Fabel vom klugen Wolf und den neun dummen
+                                 Wölfen</ref> als Lehrtexte in den Schulen verwendet.</s>
+                        <s>1927 übersetzte der Altorientalist <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Ebeling_%28Altorientalist%29">Erich Ebeling</ref> antike vorderasiatische Fabeln
+                              ins Deutsche.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f1" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Fabeln sind in unterschiedlichen Sprachen aus
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamien">Mesopotamien</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolien">Anatolien</ref> und der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levante">Levante</ref> überliefert.</s>
+                        <s>Die zweisprachigen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hethitische_Sprache">hethitisch</ref>-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurritisch">hurritischen</ref> Fabeln (hethitische Fassung ca. 1400 v. Chr.,
+                              hurritische Überlieferung ca. 16.-17. Jahrhundert v. Chr.) gehören zu
+                              den wichtigsten Fabelsammlungen des Altertums.</s>
+                        <s>Aus dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_%C3%84gypten">alten Ägypten</ref> sind keine Fabeltexte, aber
+                              Bilder von Tierfabeln (oder Tiermärchen) bekannt.</s>
+                        <s>Die Ninurta-Uballitsu-Fabelsammlung (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrien">Assyrien</ref>, 833 v. Chr.) ist die älteste, datierte Sammlung,
+                              deren Herausgeber bekannt ist.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Bekannt sind die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indien">altindische</ref> Fabelsammlung <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchatantra">Panchatantra</ref>, sowie deren Übersetzung und Bearbeitung ins
+                              Arabische (vermittelt über das Persische) <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C4%ABla_wa_Dimna">Kalīla wa Dimna</ref> und schließlich die
+                              Fabeln des Arabers <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luqman">Luqman</ref>.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Europäische Antike </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Als Begründer der europäischen Fabeldichtung gilt <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84sop">Äsop</ref>, der um 600 v. Chr. als Sklave in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griechenland">Griechenland</ref> lebte, und dessen Werk über <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus">Phaedrus</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrios">Babrios</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avianus">Avianus</ref> Eingang in das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelalter">mittelalterliche</ref> Europa fand.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Die älteste überlieferte Fabel findet sich in
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod">Hesiods</ref> Lehrgedicht <hi rend="it">Werke und Tage</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In der Antike wird die Fabel nicht als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gattung_%28Literatur%29">literarische Gattung</ref> angesehen.</s>
+                        <s>Sie wird höchstens als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorik">rhetorisches Element</ref> verwendet.</s>
+                        <s>So schreibt <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles">Aristoteles</ref> in seiner <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorik_%28Aristoteles%29">Rhetorik</ref>
+                           </hi> über Beispiele in Reden und nennt die Fabel von Äsop (als
+                              fingiertes Beispiel) und das historische Ereignis.</s>
+                        <s>Beispiele für die Verwendung in der lateinischen Literatur
+                              finden sich bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horaz">Horaz</ref> (<hi rend="it">„Die Fabel von der
+                                 Stadtmaus und der Landmaus“</hi>; Sermo II,6 Zeile 79-105)
+                              und bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livius">Livius</ref> (<hi rend="it">„Die Fabel vom
+                                 Magen und von den Gliedern“</hi>).</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Erst Phaedrus schreibt Fabelbücher, die vor
+                              allem durch eine Prosabearbeitung, das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesopus_Latinus_Romulus">Romulus-Corpus</ref>, verbreitet werden.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>[[Datei:Pfister.faks.1.jpg|mini|Seite aus: <hi rend="it">Der Edelstein</hi>, gedruckt von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Pfister">Albrecht Pfister</ref>, Bamberg 1461]] </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Mittelalter und Humanismus </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Als ältester Fabeldichter in deutscher Sprache kann der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelhochdeutsch">mittelhochdeutsche</ref> Dichter <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Stricker">Der Stricker</ref>
+                           </hi> gelten, dessen Werke ab Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts definiert
+                              werden.</s>
+                        <s>Die älteste Fabelsammlung ist wohl <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_Boner">Ulrich Boners</ref>
+                           <hi rend="it">Edelstein</hi> (etwa 1324).</s>
+                        <s>Die Fabelliteratur etabliert sich vor allem im Zeitalter des
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismus">Humanismus</ref>, so nutzt auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther">Luther</ref> nach eigener Aussage die Fabel, um im
+                              „lustigen Lügenkostüm“ Wahrheiten zu verbreiten, die die
+                              Menschen normalerweise nicht wissen wollten.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Neuzeit </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Im deutschsprachigen Raum erreicht die Fabeldichtung während
+                              des 18. Jahrhunderts ihren Höhepunkt.</s>
+                        <s>Nachdem sie während der Barockzeit nicht als ernstzunehmende
+                              Dichtungsgattung angesehen wurde, erscheint die schlichte lehrhafte
+                              Fabel nun als ideale Opposition zum abgelehnten 'Schwulst' des 17.
+                                 Jahrhunderts.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f3" rend="ref"/> Angestoßen wird die deutsche
+                              Fabeldichtung vor allem durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Houdar_de_la_Motte">La Mottes</ref>
+                           <hi rend="it">Discours sur la Fable</hi> (1719).</s>
+                        <s>La Mottes Fabelbuch wird von Dichtern wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Triller">Daniel Wilhelm Triller</ref> zum Ausgangspunkt genommen, um
+                              Anschluss an die deutsche Fabeltradition des Humanismus zu finden.</s>
+                        <s>Erst in den 1740er Jahren setzt mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F%C3%BCrchtegott_Gellert">Christian Fürchtegott Gellert</ref> auch eine
+                              stilistische Rezeption der französischen Fabeldichtung, insbesondere
+                              der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontaine">La Fontaines</ref> ein.</s>
+                        <s>Charakteristisch für die Fabeln La Fontaines ist u. a. der
+                              Verzicht auf ein belehrendes Epimythion zugunsten von Ironie.</s>
+                        <s>Dies wird von den deutschen Fabeldichtern übernommen.</s>
+                        <s>Ziel ist es, den Leser nun indirekt zum richtigen Urteilen zu
+                              erziehen, statt ihm explizite Lebensratschläge zu geben.</s>
+                        <s>Die Fabeln des mittleren 18. Jahrhunderts sind stark
+                              selbstreferentiell und weichen vom klassischen Fabelpersonal ab: Es
+                              gibt jetzt mehr Menschenfabeln und die Zahl der Singvögel steigt
+                                 an.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f4" rend="ref"/> Von dieser Tendenz ist deutlich auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</ref> geprägt.</s>
+                        <s>Lessing ist der bedeutendste Referenzautor für die heutigen
+                              Fabeldefinitionen.</s>
+                        <s>Er plädiert für eine Rückkehr zum antiken Fabelmodell und
+                              schreibt systematisch seine <hi rend="it">Fabeln</hi> (1759) in
+                              Prosa.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>In Russland ist <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwan_Andrejewitsch_Krylow">Iwan Krylow</ref> der bedeutendste Fabeldichter.</s>
+                        <s>Ein anderer Franzose, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Terrasse_Desbillons">François-Joseph Terrasse Desbillons</ref>, schreibt
+                              lateinische Fabeln in der Tradition seiner Vorbilder aus der
+                              europäischen Antike.</s>
+                        <s>Einen Sonderfall stellt Polen dar, wo sich eine besonders
+                              reiche Fabeltradition entwickelt hat.</s>
+                        <s>Der herausragende Autor ist hier <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</ref>.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>In den 1950er Jahren aktiviert vor allem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Thurber">James Thurber</ref> (<hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fables_of_Our_Time">Fables of Our Time</ref>
+                           </hi> und <hi rend="it">New Fables of Our Time</hi>) die seit dem
+                              Biedermeier marginalisierte Gattung wieder.</s>
+                        <s>In Deutschland unternimmt Hartwig Stein derzeit (<hi rend="it">In dubio pro LEOne</hi> und neuerdings <hi rend="it">Metamorphosen im Fleischwolf</hi>) einen ähnlichen Versuch, indem
+                              er den klassischen Tierkreis mit dem ökonomischen Krisenzyklus
+                              kurzschließt, altbekannte Topoi und Konflikte konsequent modernisiert
+                              und kulturkritisch modifiziert.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Charakteristische Merkmale einer Fabel </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>[[Datei:Reineke.jpg|mini|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reineke_Fuchs">Reineke Fuchs</ref>]] </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> In Fabeln wird oft kein genauer Ort
+                              genannt.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Im Mittelpunkt der Handlung stehen oft Tiere,
+                              seltener Pflanzen oder andere Dinge, denen menschliche Eigenschaften
+                              zugeordnet sind.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die Tiere handeln, denken und sprechen wie
+                              Menschen und stellen meist charakteristische <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotyp">Stereotype</ref> dar.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die Fabel will belehren und unterhalten (<hi rend="it">fabula docet et delectat</hi>).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Nach Lessing soll die Fabel einen allgemeinen
+                              moralischen Satz auf einen besonderen Fall zurückführen und diesen
+                              dann in Form einer Geschichte darstellen.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die Personifikation der Tiere dient dem Autor
+                              häufig als Schutz vor Bestrafung o. Ä., denn er übt keine direkte
+                              Kritik, etwa an Zeitgenossen.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Häufiges Fabelthema, vor allem im Zeitalter der
+                              Aufklärung, ist die Ständeordnung und die Kritik an ihr.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> In der Fabel herrscht eine Einheit von Ort,
+                              Zeit und Handlung.</s>
+                        <s>Die Situation findet nur an einem einzigen Ort und in einer
+                              kurzen Zeitspanne statt.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Es gibt nur eine Haupthandlung und keine
+                                 Nebenhandlungen.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f5" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Eine Fabel bedient sich meist einer einfachen
+                              Sprache, um allgemein verständlich zu sein.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die Auswahl der Tiere beschränkt sich auf
+                              bekannte Tiere, die der Gemeinschaft geläufig sind (bspw. <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotfuchs">Fuchs</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkrabe">Rabe</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamm">Lamm</ref>).<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f6" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Möglicher Aufbau einer Fabel </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Anamythion: Ein vorangestellter Lehrsatz (eher selten) </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Ausgangssituation </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item> Konfliktsituation <list type="ul">
+                           <item>
+                              <s> Aktion oder Rede </s>
+                           </item>
+                           <item>
+                              <s> Reaktion oder Gegenrede </s>
+                           </item>
+                        </list>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Lösung / Ergebnis </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Epimythion: Ein nachgestellter Lehrsatz (vgl.
+                           „Die Moral von der Geschicht'“).</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In der Regel enthält eine Fabel entweder ein
+                           Anamythion oder ein Epimythion.</s>
+                     <s>Ein solcher Lehrsatz wird manchmal gar nicht explizit genannt,
+                           damit der Leser ihn selbst herausfindet oder weil er ganz offensichtlich
+                           ist.</s>
+                     <s>Die Fabel dient bei vorgestelltem Lehrsatz als plastische
+                           Verdeutlichung einer Lehre, im häufiger vorkommenden nachgestellten
+                           Lehrsatz ist sie die Geschichte, die den Leser auf ein Problem stößt.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>Tierfabel </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="bo">Tierfabeln</hi> sind Fabeln, in denen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiere">Tiere</ref>
+                           wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensch">Menschen</ref> handeln und menschliche Eigenschaften haben.</s>
+                     <s>Dabei kommen manche Tiere recht oft vor, wie beispielsweise der
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6we">Löwe</ref>, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf">Wolf</ref>, die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulen">Eule</ref>,
+                           der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotfuchs">Fuchs</ref>.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Diese Tiere haben meist Eigenschaften, die sich in
+                           fast allen Fabeln gleichen.</s>
+                     <s>Der Fuchs ist dort der Schlaue, Listige, der nur auf seinen
+                           Vorteil bedacht ist.</s>
+                     <s>Die Eule ist die weise und kluge Person.</s>
+                     <s>Die Gans gilt als dumm, der Löwe als mutig, die Schlange als
+                           hinterhältig, die Maus als klein.</s>
+                     <s>Fabeltiere stellen bestimmte Charakterzüge von Menschen dar.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In der Tierfabel wird der personifizierte Charakter
+                           des Fabeltieres durch einen charakteristischen Namen unterstrichen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="dl">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>Tiernamen nach der germanischen Fabeltradition
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="table" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Bekannte Tierfabeln </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>allgemein und Sammlungen </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <list type="ul">
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecbasis_captivi">Ecbasis captivi</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_der_Tiere">Farm der Tiere</ref> (verfilmt als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufstand_der_Tiere">Aufstand der Tiere</ref>) </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C4%ABla_wa_Dimna">Kalīla wa Dimna</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koie_Buch">Koie Buch</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchatantra">Panchatantra</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                     </list>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>nach Tierart </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <list type="ul">
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_%C3%84ffin_und_ihre_Kinder">Die Äffin und ihre Kinder</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Ameise_und_die_Heuschrecke">Die Ameise und die Heuschrecke</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meister_Bockert">Meister Bockert</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Einhorn_im_Garten">Das Einhorn im Garten</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froschm%C3%A4usekrieg">Froschmäusekrieg</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froschmeuseler">Froschmeuseler</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Fuchs_und_die_Trauben">Der Fuchs und die Trauben</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vom_Fuchs_und_Raben">Vom Fuchs und Raben</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reineke_Fuchs">Reineke Fuchs</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reineke_Fuchs_%28Goethe%29">Reineke Fuchs (Goethe)</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_de_Renart">Roman de Renart</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_den_vos_Reynaerde">Van den vos Reynaerde</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Hase_und_der_Igel">Der Hase und der Igel</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matten_Has">Matten Has</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meister_Lampe">Meister Lampe</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unten_am_Fluss">Unten am Fluss</ref> (Kaninchen) </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Lamm_und_der_Wolf">Das Lamm und der Wolf</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabel_vom_L%C3%B6wenanteil">Fabel vom Löwenanteil</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_senex%2C_aper%2C_taurus_et_asinus">Der alte Löwe, der Eber, der Stier und der
+                                    Esel</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_L%C3%B6we_und_das_M%C3%A4uschen">Der Löwe und das Mäuschen</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_L%C3%B6we_und_die_Maus">Der Löwe und die Maus</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleine_Fabel">Kleine Fabel</ref> (Maus) </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_zwei_Schakale">Die zwei Schakale</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Sperling_und_seine_vier_Kinder">Der Sperling und seine vier Kinder</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_verschwenderische_J%C3%BCngling_und_die_Schwalbe">Der verschwenderische Jüngling und die
+                                    Schwalbe</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Hirtenjunge_und_der_Wolf">Der Hirtenjunge und der Wolf</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_im_Schafspelz">Wolf im Schafspelz</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                        <item>
+                           <s>
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabel_vom_klugen_Wolf_und_den_neun_dummen_W%C3%B6lfen">Fabel vom klugen Wolf und den neun dummen
+                                    Wölfen</ref>
+                           </s>
+                        </item>
+                     </list>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Pflanzenfabel </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Beispiele: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Ch%C3%AAne_et_le_Roseau">Le Chêne et le Roseau</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jotamfabel">Jotamfabel</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>Fabeldichter
+                           (Auswahl) </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84sop">Äsop</ref> (um 600 v. Chr.) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus">Phaedrus</ref> (um 20 v. Chr. – um 50 n. Chr.) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrios">Babrios</ref> (im 2. Jh. n. Chr.) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Alfonsi">Petrus Alfonsi</ref> (11./12.</s>
+                        <s>Jahrhundert) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biernat_z_Lublina">Biernat von Lublin</ref> (1465–1529) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther">Martin Luther</ref> (1483–1546) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sachs">Hans Sachs</ref> (1494–1576) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartosz_Paprocki">Bartosz Paprocki</ref> (1540–1614) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfhart_Spangenberg">Wolfhart Spangenberg</ref> (1567–1636) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontaine">Jean de La Fontaine</ref> (1621–1695) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Triller">Daniel Triller</ref> (1695–1782) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F%C3%BCrchtegott_Gellert">Christian Fürchtegott Gellert</ref>
+                              (1715–1769) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_G._Lichtwer">Magnus G. Lichtwer</ref> (1719–1783) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</ref> (1729–1781)
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</ref> (1735–1801) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi">Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi</ref> (1746–1827)
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Claris_de_Florian">Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian</ref>
+                              (1755–1794) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_August_Fischer">Christian August Fischer</ref> (1771–1829)
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwan_Andrejewitsch_Krylow">Iwan Andrejewitsch Krylow</ref> (1768–1844)
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Hey_%28Dichter%29">Wilhelm Hey</ref> (1789–1854) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Lachambeaudie">Pierre Lachambeaudie</ref> (1807–1872) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Chandler_Harris">Joel Chandler Harris</ref> (1848–1908) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elieser_Steinbarg">Elieser Steinbarg</ref> (1880–1932) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Thurber">James Thurber</ref> (1894–1961) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfdietrich_Schnurre">Wolfdietrich Schnurre</ref> (1920–1989) </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Rezeption in der Didaktik </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Fabeln sind Lehrstücke über menschliches Denken und
+                           Verhalten.</s>
+                     <s>Im Handeln von Tieren oder Gegenständen kann jeder seine eigenen
+                           Charaktereigenschaften und Verhaltensweisen gespiegelt wiedererkennen,
+                           ohne sich persönlich beleidigt oder bloßgestellt fühlen zu müssen.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f7" rend="ref"/> Die literarische Form eignet sich daher besonders gut zum Einsatz im
+                           pädagogischen Feld und wird vom <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschunterricht">Deutschunterricht</ref> und von der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkehrserziehung">Verkehrserziehung</ref> entsprechend didaktisch und methodisch
+                           genutzt: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschunterricht">Deutschunterricht</ref> werden verbreitete Schwächen wie
+                           Überheblichkeit, Geltungsbedürfnis, Machtgelüste oder Schlitzohrigkeit
+                           entlarvt.</s>
+                     <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkehrsfabel">Verkehrsfabel</ref> lassen sich Fehlverhaltensweisen im
+                           Verkehr wie Vorteildenken, Rücksichtslosigkeit, Aggressivität oder
+                           Sachbeschädigung thematisieren und in ihren Auswirkungen darstellen, aber
+                           auch sozialen Tugenden wie Partnerschaft und Hilfsbereitschaft als
+                           konstruktiven Haltungen gegenüberstellen.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Aufgrund ihrer einfachen Struktur eignen sich
+                           Fabeln neben der Analyse und Interpretation auch zur kreativen
+                           Eigengestaltung nach selbst erlebten Vorkommnissen.<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f10" rend="ref"/> So entwarf ein dreizehnjähriges Mädchen nach einer
+                           entsprechenden Strukturvorgabe die folgende Fabel:<ptr target="WPD17.F09.32318-f11" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">Hansi und Franzi und Susi am Bus</hi>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">An der Bushaltestelle begegneten sich Hansi und
+                              Franzi.</hi>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">„Heute sitze ich hinter dem Fahrer!“ meinte
+                              Hansi.</hi>
+                     </s>
+                     <hi rend="it">
+                        <s>„Das werden wir erst noch sehen, das ist mein
+                              Platz!“ erwiderte Franzi.</s>
+                     </hi>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">Während sie sich noch beschimpften und prügelten, stieg
+                              Susi in den Bus und setzte sich hinter den Fahrer.</hi>
+                     </s>
+                     <hi rend="it">
+                        <s>Der Bus aber fuhr ohne die beiden ab.</s>
+                     </hi>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">Lehre: Wenn zwei sich streiten, freut sich der dritte.</hi>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Siehe auch </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forschungen_eines_Hundes">Forschungen eines Hundes</ref>, Erzählung mit
+                              Fabelcharakter von Franz Kafka </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Gedruckte Fabelsammlungen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Theodor Etzel: <hi rend="it">Fabeln und Parabeln der
+                                 Weltliteratur</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Köln: Komet Verlag, o.J., ISBN 3-89836-388-0 (Neuausgabe, mit
+                              101 Originalillustrationen).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_Seliger">Dirk Seliger</ref>: <hi rend="it">Fabeln</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Buch 1-3. Föritz: amicus Verlag, 2002, 2005 und 2006, ISBN
+                              978-3-935660-11-2, ISBN 978-3-935660-24-2, ISBN 978-3-935660-86-0 (mit
+                              zahlreichen Illustrationen aus der Hand des Autors).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Irmgard Harrer (Hg.): <hi rend="it">Das
+                                 Fabelbuch von Aesop bis heute</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Wien, München: Annette Betz Verlag im Verlag Carl
+                              Ueberreuter, 2003, ISBN 3-219-11104-1 (illustriert von Silke Leffler,
+                              ausgezeichnet in Österreich als schönstes Buch des Jahres 2003).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florian_Russi">Florian Russi</ref>: <hi rend="it">Der verliebte
+                                 Schwan und 35 weitere Fabeln</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Halle: Mitteldeutscher Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-95462-708-0
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Literatur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Reinhard Dithmar: <hi rend="it">Die Fabel.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Geschichte, Struktur, Didaktik</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>.</s>
+                        <s>Schöningh Verlag Paderborn, 4. Auflage 1974, ISBN
+                              3-506-99152-3. </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Doderer">Klaus Doderer</ref>: <hi rend="it">Fabeln.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Formen, Figuren, Lehren</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>.</s>
+                        <s>München: dtv, 1982, ISBN 3-423-04276-1. </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Hans-Joachim Fischer: <hi rend="it">Fabeltiere
+                                 – im Spiegel der Tiere den Menschen erblicken</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In: Sache-Wort-Zahl 86(2007)4-7 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Eleanor Marston: <hi rend="it">Fabelhaft.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Die Welt der Fabeltiere.</s>
+                           <s>Ein Ratespiel</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>.</s>
+                        <s>Frankfurt a.M.: edition Büchergilde, 2011, EAN 4260118010339.
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Siegbert A. Warwitz: <hi rend="it">Wir deuten
+                                 und dichten Verkehrsfabeln</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In: Sache-Wort-Zahl 25(1999)S. 53–56 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegbert_A._Warwitz">Siegbert A. Warwitz</ref>: <hi rend="it">Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkehrsfabel">Verkehrsfabel</ref> oder Wie man Verkehrsprobleme
+                                 thematisieren kann</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In: Ders.: <hi rend="it">Verkehrserziehung vom Kinde
+                                 aus.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Wahrnehmen-Spielen-Denken-Handeln</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>.</s>
+                        <s>Baltmannsweiler: Schneider 2009. 6. Auflage.</s>
+                        <s>S. 172–173, 179–181, 273–279.</s>
+                        <s>ISBN 978-3-8340-0563-2 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Bernd A. Weil: <hi rend="it">Fabeln: Verstehen
+                                 und Gestalten</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Frankfurt/M.: Fischer Verlag, 1982, ISBN 3-88323-379-X . </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Joachim Wittkowski: <hi rend="it">Docet
+                                 fabula?</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Anmerkungen zu neuen Fabeln</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s> in: <hi rend="it">Beiträge Jugendliteratur und
+                                 Medien</hi>, 57. Jahrgang, Heft 2, 2005. </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Siehe auch </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jataka">Jataka</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabliau">Fabliaux</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazetie">Fazetie</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flohliteratur">Flohliteratur</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4rchen">Märchen</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Weblinks </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://literaturnetz.org/fabeln">Fabeln</ref>
+                           im Literaturnetz </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.hekaya.de/ausallerwelt.phtml/fabel">Fabeln, Märchen und Sagen aus aller Welt</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.udoklinger.de/Deutsch/Fabeln/Inhalt2.htm">Ausführliche Informationen über die Textsorte
+                              Fabel</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.demetrius-degen.de/fabeln/fabeln.htm">Eine große Sammlung alter Fabeln und Anekdoten</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.F23.53003">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/F23.53003 Flohallergie, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flohallergie: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Uwe Gille, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Flohallergie</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild%3AFeline_self-inflicted_alopecia.JPG">thumb|Haarausfall bei einer Katze mit Flohallergie: Das
+                        Deckhaar ist bis auf die Rückenpartie vollständig ausgefallen.</ref>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="bo">Flohallergie</hi> – auch <hi rend="bo">Flohbissallergie</hi>, <hi rend="bo">Flohspeichelallergie</hi>, <hi rend="bo">Flohallergische Dermatitis</hi> oder <hi rend="bo">Allergische
+                           Flohdermatitis</hi> – ist eine durch den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speichel">Speichel</ref> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%B6he">Flöhen</ref> bedingte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergie">allergische</ref> Hauterkrankung, die vor allem bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haushund">Haushunden</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauskatze">Hauskatzen</ref> auftritt.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leitsymptom">Leitsymptom</ref> ist intensiver <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juckreiz">Juckreiz</ref>, der zu selbstzugefügten schweren Hautveränderungen und
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekund%C3%A4rinfektion">Sekundärinfektionen</ref> führen kann.</s>
+                  <s>Die Behandlung erfolgt durch eine Flohbekämpfung und -prophylaxe,
+                        gegen den Juckreiz können kurzzeitig <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucocorticoide">Glukokortikoide</ref> eingesetzt werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Vorkommen und Pathogenese </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild%3ACatflea_small.jpg">thumb|Katzenfloh</ref> Flohallergien sind bei Hunden und
+                           Katzen ein recht häufiges Phänomen und werden, auch bei Hunden, vor allem
+                           durch den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katzenfloh">Katzenfloh</ref> (<hi rend="it">Ctenocephalides
+                              felis</hi>) ausgelöst.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f1" rend="ref"/> Betroffen sind Tiere aller Rassen und
+                           Altersklassen.</s>
+                     <s>Auch wenn die Erkrankung im Sommer häufiger auftritt, kommt sie
+                           ganzjährig vor.</s>
+                     <s>Eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disposition_%28Medizin%29">erhöhte Krankheitsneigung</ref> haben Hunde, die an
+                           einer anderen Allergie, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atopische_Dermatitis_des_Hundes">Atopischen Dermatitis</ref>, leiden: Etwa 80 % der
+                           atopischen Hunde entwickeln bei Flohexposition eine Flohallergie.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                           Eine Flohallergie tritt auch bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marder">Mardern</ref>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f3" rend="ref"/> und gelegentlich bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausschaf">Schafen</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausziege">Ziegen</ref>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                        <hi rend="super">, </hi>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f5" rend="ref"/> auf, wobei hier ebenfalls der Katzenfloh häufigster Auslöser ist.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild%3AMalassezia_dermatitis.jpg">thumb|Chronische Flohallergie mit sekundärer
+                              Malassezien-Dermatitis bei einem Hund: Haarverlust, Hautverdickung und
+                              Hyperpigmentierung.</ref> Als Allergieauslöser (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergen">Allergene</ref>) kommen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein">Proteine</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptene">Haptene</ref> aus dem Speichel der Flöhe mit einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molare_Masse">molaren Masse</ref> von 6–58 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton_%28Einheit%29">kDa</ref> in Betracht.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f6" rend="ref"/> Das erste identifizierte
+                           allergieauslösende Flohspeichelprotein war das aus 158 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminos%C3%A4uren">Aminosäuren</ref> bestehende <hi rend="it">Cte f 1</hi> (<hi rend="it">Cte f</hi> steht für <hi rend="it">Ctenocephalides
+                              felis</hi>) mit einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molare_Masse">Molaren Masse</ref> von 18 kDa.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f7" rend="ref"/> Insgesamt kommen mindestens
+                           15 verschiedene Flohallergene als Verursacher in Frage, die am häufigsten
+                           reagierenden haben eine molare Masse zwischen 25 und 58 kDa.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Flohallergie ist größtenteils eine durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunglobulin_E">Immunglobulin E</ref> (IgE) vermittelte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergie%23Typ_I%3A_die_%25E2%2580%259Eklassische%25E2%2580%259C_Allergie_bzw._an_freie_Antigene_IgE-vermittelter_Soforttyp">Typ-I-Reaktion</ref>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f9" rend="ref"/> mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granula">Degranulation</ref> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastzelle">Mastzellen</ref> und einer Zunahme der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eosinophiler_Granulozyt">eosinophilen Granulozyten</ref> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eosinophilie">Eosinophilie</ref>).<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f10" rend="ref"/> In einer experimentellen Studie an
+                           Labormäusen zeigte sich eine enge Beziehung zwischen der Menge an
+                           Immunglobulin E und dem Grad der klinischen Erkrankung, wobei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD4-Rezeptor">CD4-positive</ref>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-Lymphozyt">T-Lymphozyten</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleukin%23Interleukin-4">Interleukin-4</ref> maßgeblich an der
+                           Krankheitsentstehung beteiligt waren.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f11" rend="ref"/> In Einzelfällen kann auch
+                           eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergie%23Typ_IV%3A_Sp%25C3%25A4ttyp%2FVerz%25C3%25B6gerter_Typ%2FZell-mediierter_Typ%2FAntik%25C3%25B6rper-unabh%25C3%25A4ngiger_Typ%2FTuberkulintyp">Typ-IV-Reaktion</ref> auftreten.</s>
+                     <s>Darüber hinaus werden auch andere immunologische Mechanismen
+                           diskutiert, wie eine verzögerte zelluläre Immunantwort auf <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunglobulin_E">IgE</ref> und eine Überempfindlichkeit der Haut mit Einwanderung <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basophiler_Granulozyt">basophiler Granulozyten</ref> und Degranulation dieser
+                           Zellen nach IgE- oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunglobulin_G">IgG</ref>-Bindung.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f12" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Klinisches Bild </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Das Leitsymptom der Flohallergie beim Hund ist intensiver <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juckreiz">Juckreiz</ref> vor allem in der Lenden-, Leisten- und Schwanzgegend,
+                           auf den die Tiere mit Benagen und Belecken reagieren.</s>
+                     <s>Als erste Hautveränderung (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effloreszenz">Primäreffloreszenz</ref>) tritt eine kleine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papel">Papel</ref>
+                           auf.</s>
+                     <s>Gelegentlich kommt es zu einer Anschwellung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kniekehllymphknoten">Kniekehllymphknoten</ref>.</s>
+                     <s>Durch das Benagen und Belecken entwickeln sich im Regelfall
+                           weitere Hautveränderungen wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion_%28Medizin%29">Erosionen</ref> und Krusten, ein sogenannter „<hi rend="it">hot spot</hi>“, eine umschriebene, oberflächliche
+                           eitrige Hautentzündung (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyodermie">Pyodermie</ref>).</s>
+                     <s>Auch eine Überwucherung der Haut mit <hi rend="it">Malassezia
+                              pachydermatis</hi>, einer Hefe der natürlichen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hautflora">Hautflora</ref>, wird häufiger beobachtet, so dass es sekundär zu
+                           einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malassezien-Dermatitis_des_Hundes">Malassezien-Dermatitis</ref> kommt.</s>
+                     <s>Bei chronischem Bestehen einer Flohallergie treten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alopezie">Haarausfall</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperpigmentierung">Hyperpigmentierung</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenifikation">Hautverdickung</ref> auf.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild%3AFeline_Milliary_Derm_%284%29.jpg">thumb|Miliare Dermatitis bei einer Katze mit
+                              Flohallergie</ref> Bei Katzen ist das klinische Bild variabler.</s>
+                     <s>Betroffen sind hier vor allem die Schwanzwurzel und Lenden-,
+                           Bauch- und Leistenregion sowie der Hals.</s>
+                     <s>Das Haupterscheinungsbild ist neben Juckreiz eine Hautentzündung
+                           mit hirsekorngroßen Papeln und Krusten (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliare_Dermatitis">miliare Dermatitis</ref>).</s>
+                     <s>Auch eine Überempfindlichkeit (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper%C3%A4sthesie">Hyperästhesie</ref>) des Rückens kann auf eine
+                           Flohallergie hinweisen.</s>
+                     <s>Bei längerem Bestehen kann fleckiger oder beidseits
+                           symmetrischer Haarausfall auftreten.</s>
+                     <s>Durch intensives Belecken kann eine flächige, erhabene
+                           Hautrötung (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eosinophile_Plaque">eosinophile Plaque</ref>) entstehen.</s>
+                     <s>Auch ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliare_Dermatitis%23Indolenter_Ulkus">nichtschmerzhaftes Lippengeschwür</ref> mit Einwanderung
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrophiler_Granulozyt">neutrophiler Granulozyten</ref> und bakterieller
+                           Sekundärinfektion kann Ausdruck einer Flohallergie sein.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f13" rend="ref"/> Eine Flohallergie kann bei Katzen auch mit Lymphknotenschwellungen
+                           einhergehen und ist klinisch nicht immer von einer nichtallergischen
+                           Dermatitis nach Flohexposition zu unterscheiden.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Bei Schafen manifestiert sich eine Flohallergie vor
+                           allem an den Gliedmaßen<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f4" rend="ref"/>, bei Mardern ähnelt das klinische Bild
+                           dem der Hunde.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Diagnostik </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Neben dem klinischen Bild und einer zu erfragenden mangelnden
+                           Flohprophylaxe kann man mittels eines Flohkamms Flöhe oder Flohkot im
+                           Fell nachweisen.</s>
+                     <s>Da Flöhe sich nicht permanent auf dem Wirt aufhalten, ist ein
+                           negativer Befund jedoch noch nicht diagnostisch aussagekräftig.</s>
+                     <s>Zudem sind insbesondere Katzen durch ihre intensive Fellpflege
+                           in der Lage, Flöhe schnell zu beseitigen.</s>
+                     <s>Da jedoch bereits ein einziger Flohbiss eine Allergie auslösen
+                              kann<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f8" rend="ref"/>, kann diese alleiniger Hinweis auf eine Flohexposition
+                           sein.</s>
+                     <s>Ein weiteres Indiz ist der Nachweis der Eier des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurkenkernbandwurm">Gurkenkernbandwurms</ref> im Kot, da dieser Flöhe als
+                           Zwischenwirt benötigt.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild%3AFlea_product_reaction.jpg">thumb|Positiver Intrakutantest</ref> Ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergie%23Hauttests">Intrakutantest</ref> mit hochgereinigtem
+                           Flohspeicheleiweiß ist zur Diagnosesicherung am ehesten geeignet.</s>
+                     <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivit%C3%A4t">Sensitivität</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spezifit%C3%A4t">Spezifität</ref> liegt hier über 90 %.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f14" rend="ref"/> Ganzkörperextrakte aus Flöhen haben einen zu geringen Allergengehalt
+                           und mit einer Sensitivität von 67 % nur einen begrenzten Wert.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f14" rend="ref"/> Beim Intrakutantest werden 0,05 ml einer Testlösung in die Haut
+                           injiziert.</s>
+                     <s>Nach 10 bis 20 Minuten entsteht bei positivem Befund eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaddel">Quaddel</ref>, bei einigen Tieren auch erst nach 24 oder 48 Stunden,
+                           so dass eine dreimalige Kontrolle der Reaktion angezeigt ist.</s>
+                     <s>Als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivkontrolle">Positivkontrolle</ref> wird an einer anderen Stelle <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histamin">Histamin</ref> appliziert.</s>
+                     <s>Eine vorangegangene Behandlung mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukokortikoide">Glukokortikoiden</ref> kann zu falsch negativen Ergebnissen
+                           führen.</s>
+                     <s>In einem solchen Fall muss der Test nach zwei, bei
+                           Depotpräparaten nach sechs Wochen wiederholt werden.</s>
+                     <s>Nachteil dieses Tests ist, dass für ihn ein Hautgebiet geschoren
+                           werden muss und entsprechende Testlösungen mit begrenzter Haltbarkeit
+                           vorrätig gehalten werden müssen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die diagnostische Sicherheit von serologischen
+                           Untersuchungen von Blutproben mittels <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme-linked_Immunosorbent_Assay">ELISA</ref> ist nicht unumstritten.</s>
+                     <s>Die Sensitivität ist mit 87 % zwar recht hoch, die Spezifität
+                           mit 53 % jedoch unzureichend.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f14" rend="ref"/> Da sie für den Tierarzt aber
+                           praktikabler sind, werden diese Tests häufiger durchgeführt als der
+                           Intrakutantest.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Als „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldstandard_%28Verfahren%29">Goldstandard</ref>“ gilt der Provokationstest,
+                           bei dem 10 frisch geschlüpfte, nüchterne und mikrobiologisch
+                           unbedenkliche Flöhe auf das Tier angesetzt werden, allerdings ist dieser
+                           Nachweis wenig praxistauglich.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Therapie </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die beste Therapie ist eine konsequente Flohbekämpfung.</s>
+                     <s>Dies kann durch regelmäßigen Einsatz langwirksamer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insektizid">Insektizide</ref> (z. B.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afoxolaner">Afoxolaner</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fipronil">Fipronil</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluralaner">Fluralaner</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imidacloprid">Imidacloprid</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaflumizon">Metaflumizon</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitenpyran">Nitenpyran</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selamectin">Selamectin</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinosad">Spinosad</ref>) realisiert werden, die auch bei einem Befall
+                           therapeutisch eingesetzt werden.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f15" rend="ref"/> Für die Behandlung ist es
+                           von entscheidender Bedeutung, dass die Abtötungsgeschwindigkeit (speed of
+                           kill) hoch ist und die Wirkung anhaltend ist.</s>
+                     <s>Nitenpyran hat eine Abtötungsgeschwindigkeit von 3 Stunden, die
+                           Wirkung lässt aber bereits nach 2 Tagen deutlich nach.</s>
+                     <s>Imidacloprid ist nach 8 Stunden wirksam und zewigt eine anhalten
+                           hohe Abtötung über 14 Tage.</s>
+                     <s>Metaflumizon, Selamectin und Fipronil habe eine lange Wirkung,
+                           die Abtötungsgeschwindigkeit ist aber relativ gering.</s>
+                     <s>Permethrin-haltige Präparate wirken nach etwa 6 Stunden und
+                           zeigen eine Wirkung über einen Monat, dürfen jedoch bei Katzen nicht
+                           angewendet werden.</s>
+                     <s>Die neueren oralen Antiparasitika wie Spinosad, Afoxolaner und
+                           Fluralaner haben sehr hohe Abtötungsgeschwindigkeiten und eine gute
+                           anhaltende Wirkung.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f16" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Bei nachgewiesenem Befall sollte auch eine
+                           Behandlung der Umgebung des Tieres, vor allem des Liegeplatzes und
+                           bevorzugter Aufenthaltsorte, erfolgen, da sich Flöhe nicht permanent auf
+                           dem Tier aufhalten und die Wirksamkeit der am Tier angewendeten
+                           Wirkstoffe auf diesen Teil der Flohpopulation begrenzt ist.<ptr target="WPD17.F23.53003-f17" rend="ref"/> Die Umgebungsbehandlung erfolgt durch regelmäßiges Staubsaugen und
+                           Waschen von Decken und Teppichen, unterstützt durch eine chemische
+                           Flohbekämpfung mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorpyrifos">Chlorpyrifos</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permethrin">Permethrin</ref> (nicht bei Katzen), <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propoxur">Propoxur</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenoxycarb">Fenoxycarb</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methopren">Methopren</ref> bzw. Kombinationen dieser Wirkstoffe (z. B.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">Bolfo-Plus</hi>, <hi rend="it">Kadox</hi>, <hi rend="it">VetKem</hi>).</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Gegen die akuten Symptome können als
+                           Entzündungshemmer kurzzeitig wirkende <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukokortikoide">Glukokortikoide</ref> wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prednisolon">Prednisolon</ref> zweimal im Abstand von 48 Stunden
+                           („2-Tage-Therapie“) eingesetzt werden.</s>
+                     <s>Bei Katzen empfehlen Rosje und Willemse eine fünftägige
+                           Prednisolongabe.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihistaminikum">Antihistaminika</ref> sind bei Hunden und Katzen zumeist
+                           wirkungslos, da der Juckreiz kaum über <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histamin">Histamin</ref> vermittelt wird.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die bisherigen Studien zu einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyposensibilisierung">Hyposensibilisierung</ref> zeigten unzufriedenstellende
+                           Ergebnisse, unter Umständen deshalb, weil sie nur mit
+                           Floh-Ganzkörperextrakten durchgeführt wurden.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Literatur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> B. Bigler: <hi rend="it">Allergische
+                              Flohdermatitis</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In: P.F.</s>
+                        <s>Suter und B. Kohn (Hrsg.): <hi rend="it">Praktikum der
+                                 Hundeklinik</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Parey, 10. Aufl. 2006, S. 373.</s>
+                        <s>ISBN 3-8304-4141-X </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Ch. Noli und F. Scarampella: <hi rend="it">Flohbissallergie</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In: <hi rend="it">Praktische Dermatologie bei Hund und
+                                 Katze.</hi> Schlütersche Verlagsanstalt, 2. Aufl. 2005, S.
+                              264–267.</s>
+                        <s>ISBN 3-87706-713-1 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> P.J.</s>
+                        <s>Rosje und T. Willemse: <hi rend="it">Flohspeichelallergie</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>In: M.C. Horzinek (Hrsg.): <hi rend="it">Krankheiten der
+                                 Katze.</hi> Enke, 3. Aufl. 2003, S. 296–297.</s>
+                        <s>ISBN 3-8304-1003-4 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> C.A. Sousa: <hi rend="it">Fleas, flea allergy,
+                                 and flea control: a review.</hi> Dermatology Online Journal 1997
+                              Dec;3(2):7. (<ref target="http://dermatology.cdlib.org/DOJvol3num2/fleas/fleas.html">Volltext</ref>) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> George T. Wilkinson und Richard G. Harvey: <hi rend="it">Farbatlas der Hauterkrankungen bei kleinen
+                                 Haustieren.</hi> Schlütersche, 2. Aufl. 1999.</s>
+                        <s>ISBN 3-87706-554-6 </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.S00.18619">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/S00.18619 Supraleiter, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supraleiter: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>NoBuddy, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Supraleiter</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Überraschend war der Anteil an Eisenatomen, weil
+                              jedes bekannte supraleitende Material durch ausreichend starke
+                              Magnetfelder normalleitend wird.</s>
+                  <s>Diese starken internen Magnetfelder könnten nun sogar
+                              Voraussetzung der Supraleitung sein.</s>
+                  <s>Das Rätselraten über die physikalischen Grundlagen ist
+                              dadurch noch größer geworden.</s>
+                  <s>Bisher steht nur fest, dass der Stromfluss durch Paare von
+                              Elektronen getragen wird, wie in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS-Theorie">BCS-Theorie</ref> beschrieben.</s>
+                  <s>Welcher Effekt aber diese <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper-Paar">Cooper-Paare</ref> verbindet, ist unklar.</s>
+                  <s>Sicher scheint, dass es sich nicht – wie bei
+                              metallischen Supraleitern – um eine Elektron-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon">Phonon</ref>-Wechselwirkung handelt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Metallische Supraleiter bei extrem tiefen Temperaturen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="table" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Je nach ihrem Verhalten im Magnetfeld unterscheidet
+                           man Supraleiter vom Typ I und Typ II, auch Supraleiter 1. und 2. Art
+                           genannt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Supraleiter 1. Art </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein magnetisches Feld wird in Supraleitern 1. Art bis auf
+                              eine dünne Schicht an der Oberfläche vollständig aus dem Inneren
+                              verdrängt.</s>
+                  <s>Das Magnetfeld nimmt an der Oberfläche des Supraleiters sehr
+                              rasch exponentiell ab; das charakteristische Maß von etwa 100 nm der
+                              Oberflächenschicht ist die so genannte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/London-Gleichung">(Londonsche) Eindringtiefe</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Man bezeichnet diesen Zustand auch als <hi rend="it">Meißner-Phase</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Supraleiter 1. Art wird auch für Temperaturen <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> oder die Stromdichte
+                              durch den Supraleiter einen kritischen Wert <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> überschreitet.</s>
+                  <s>Die meisten metallischen Elemente zeigen dieses Verhalten und
+                              haben dabei sehr niedrige Sprungtemperaturen im Bereich weniger <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin">Kelvin</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Ausnahmen sind die nicht supraleitenden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetalle">Alkali-</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdalkalimetalle">Erdalkalimetalle</ref> sowie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupfer">Kupfer</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silber">Silber</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold">Gold</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Das Auftreten einer kritischen Stromdichte kann verstanden
+                              werden, indem man sich vor Augen führt, dass für das Anwerfen eines
+                              Abschirmstromes Energie nötig ist.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Energie muss von der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kondensationsenergie">Kondensationsenergie</ref> beim Phasenübergang
+                              normalleitend nach supraleitend geliefert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Sobald die benötigte Energie die Kondensationsenergie
+                              übersteigt, kann keine Supraleitung mehr vorliegen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei Typ-I-Supraleitern wird die Supraleitung
+                              durch eine Paarbildung von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron">Elektronen</ref> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper-Paar">Cooper-Paare</ref>) im Leiter erklärt.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der normalen elektrischen Leitung entsteht der
+                              elektrische Widerstand durch Wechselwirkungen der Elektronen mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitterfehler">Gitterfehlern</ref> des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallgitter">Kristallgitters</ref> und mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitterschwingung">Gitterschwingungen</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Darüber hinaus können auch Streuprozesse der Elektronen
+                              untereinander eine wichtige Rolle spielen.</s>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantenphysik">quantenphysikalische</ref> Theorie zur Beschreibung
+                              der Typ-I-Supraleiter heißt nach ihren Autoren Bardeen, Cooper und
+                              Schriefer die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS-Theorie">BCS-Theorie</ref>: Elektronen sind <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion">Fermionen</ref>, die sich nach BCS unter bestimmten Bedingungen zu
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson">bosonischen</ref> Paaren, sogenannten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper-Paar">Cooper-Paaren</ref> zusammenschließen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Menge dieser Bosonen nimmt dann einen makroskopischen
+                              Quantenzustand ein, der den Fermionen verwehrt ist (vgl. auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suprafluidit%C3%A4t">Suprafluidität</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Die Kopplung der Elektronen zu Cooper-Paaren und deren
+                              Delokalisation im gemeinsamen Quantenzustand unterdrückt die
+                              Energieabgabe an das Kristallgitter und ermöglicht so den
+                              widerstandslosen elektrischen Stromfluss.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Supraleiter 2. Art </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Supraleiter 2. Art befinden sich bis zum sogenannten
+                              „unteren kritischen Magnetfeld“ <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> in der Meißner-Phase, verhalten
+                              sich also wie Typ I.</s>
+                  <s>Bei höheren Magnetfeldern können magnetische <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldlinie">Feldlinien</ref> in Form sogenannter <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flussschlauch">Flussschläuche</ref> in das Material eindringen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lew_Wassiljewitsch_Schubnikow">Schubnikow</ref>- oder Mischphase, auch Vortex- oder
+                              Flussschlauch-Zustand), ehe der supraleitende Zustand bei einem
+                              „oberen kritischen Magnetfeld“ <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> vollständig zerstört wird.</s>
+                  <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetischer_Fluss">magnetische Fluss</ref> in einem Flussschlauch ist
+                              immer gleich dem magnetischen Flussquant:<ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Fließt ein Strom mit der Dichte <hi rend="it">J</hi> durch den Supraleiter, so übt er auf die Flussschläuche
+                              eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz-Kraft">Lorentz-Kraft</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>senkrecht zu <hi rend="it">J</hi> und dem
+                                 Magnetfeld <hi rend="it">B</hi> aus.</s>
+                  <s>Dadurch wandern die Flussschläuche mit der Geschwindigkeit
+                                 <hi rend="it">v</hi> quer durch das Material.</s>
+                  <s>Hierbei verschwinden die Schläuche an einem Rand und bilden
+                              sich am gegenüberliegenden Rand neu.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Feldbewegung verursacht wiederum eine Lorentz-Kraft
+                                 <gap reason="math" instant="false"/>, welche nach
+                              der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenzsche_Regel">Lenzschen Regel</ref> dem Strom entgegengerichtet
+                              ist.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Gegenkraft bewirkt einen Spannungsabfall, es entsteht
+                              also ein elektrischer Widerstand im Supraleiter.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Um das zu verhindern, können in das
+                              Kristallgitter gezielt Störstellen (Pinning-Zentren) eingebaut werden,
+                              welche die Flussschläuche bis zu einer bestimmten Grenzkraft
+                              festhalten.</s>
+                  <s>Erst wenn die Lorentz-Kraft <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> diese Grenze übersteigt, kommt es zur Drift und
+                              damit zum sogenannten Flux-flow-Widerstand.</s>
+                  <s>Supraleiter mit einer großen Grenzkraft bezeichnet man als
+                                 <hi rend="it">harte Supraleiter</hi>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Supraleiter zweiter Art sind theoretisch
+                              nicht so gut verstanden wie die Supraleiter erster Art. Zwar wird auch
+                              in diesen Supraleitern die Bildung von Cooper-Paaren angenommen, ein
+                              allgemein akzeptiertes Modell zu ihrer vollständigen Beschreibung
+                              existiert jedoch noch nicht.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Beispiele für Typ-II-Supraleiter sind die
+                              keramischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochtemperatursupraleiter">Hochtemperatursupraleiter</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Zwei wichtige Gruppen sind <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/YBaCuO">YBaCuO</ref> (Yttrium-Barium-Kupferoxide) und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSCCO">BiSrCaCuO</ref> (Bismut-Strontium-Kalzium-Kupferoxide).</s>
+                  <s>Weiterhin zählen die meisten supraleitenden Legierungen zum
+                              Typ II, so wie die für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetresonanztomographie">MR</ref>-Magnete verwendeten
+                              Niob-Aluminium-Legierungen.</s>
+                  <s>Seit ca. 2008 hat eine neue Klasse Materialien an Bedeutung
+                              gewonnen; die sogenannten Eisen<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stickstoffgruppe">pniktide</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Der Grundbaustein dieser Supraleiter ist <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsen">Arsen</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisen">Eisen</ref> und tritt in der Regel in Kombination mit
+                              einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalle_der_Seltenen_Erden">seltenen Erde</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauerstoff">Sauerstoff</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluor">Fluor</ref> auf.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Eigenschaften </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Supraleiter, mit geringfügigen Unterschieden zwischen 1. und
+                              2. Art, zeigen neben dem praktischen Verlust des elektrischen
+                              Widerstandes und dem Verdrängen von Magnetfeldern aus ihrer Struktur
+                              noch weitere besondere Eigenschaften.</s>
+                  <s>Die meisten lassen sich mit der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS-Theorie">BCS-Theorie</ref> oder Betrachtung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freie_Enthalpie">freien Enthalpie</ref>
+                              („Gibbs-Funktion“) erklären.</s>
+                  <s>Die freie Enthalpie der jeweiligen Phase kann man über
+                              verschiedene Beobachtungsparameter (z. B.</s>
+                  <s>Druck, Temperatur, magnetisches Feld) berechnen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Gibbs-Funktion wird in diesem Fall durch ein Minimum
+                              festgelegt, d. h., die supraleitende Phase wird im Vergleich zur
+                              normalleitenden Phase instabil, wenn die freie Enthalpie der
+                              supraleitenden Phase größer ist als die der normalleitenden (und
+                              umgekehrt).</s>
+                  <s>Ein sich drehender Supraleiter erzeugt ein Magnetfeld, dessen
+                              Orientierung mit der Drehachse des Supraleiters zusammenfällt, was man
+                              mit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/London-Moment">London-Moment</ref> bezeichnet.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein sogenanntes <hi rend="it">kritisches
+                                 Magnetfeld</hi>
+                     <gap reason="math" instant="false"/>, bei dem die
+                              Supraleitung zusammenbricht, kann als Funktion der
+                                 Umgebungstemperatur <hi rend="it">T</hi> betrachtet werden.</s>
+                  <s>In der Nähe des absoluten Nullpunktes muss <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> aufgewendet werden, um die
+                              supraleitende Phase zu zerstören.</s>
+                  <s>Beim Erreichen der Übergangstemperatur <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> bricht die supraleitende Phase
+                              auch ohne ein äußeres Magnetfeld zusammen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Funktion des äußeren kritischen Magnetfeldes kann in
+                              guter Näherung durch </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>beschrieben werden.</s>
+                  <s>Die Erklärung für den Zusammenbruch der Supraleitung bei
+                              ausreichend hohen Magnetfeldern liegt in der Bindungsenergie der
+                              Cooper-Paare; wird diesen eine Energie oberhalb ihrer Bindungsenergie
+                              zugeführt, dann brechen sie auf und es entsteht die normalleitende
+                              Phase.</s>
+                  <s>Die Umgebungstemperatur muss entsprechend niedriger sein, um
+                              diesen Vorgang mit der Kondensation von Cooper-Paaren zu
+                              kompensieren.</s>
+                  <s>Die kritische Energie kann nicht nur durch magnetische Felder
+                              erzeugt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Umgebungstemperatur wurden auch Funktionen mit dem Druck
+                              (1.) und elektrischen Feldern (2.) gefunden.</s>
+                  <s>Da das Aufbrechen von Cooper-Paaren endotherm ist, kann man
+                              durch ein Magnetfeld <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> und einen darin befindlichen Stoff im supraleitenden Zustand die
+                              Umgebung des Supraleiters abkühlen.</s>
+                  <s>Als technische Anwendung ist dieser Kühlprozess per
+                              Entmagnetisierung jedoch uninteressant.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das Volumen eines Stoffes in der normalleitenden
+                              Phase <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> (bei
+                              Temperaturen <gap reason="math" instant="false"/>) ist
+                              kleiner als das Volumen in der supraleitenden Phase <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> (<gap reason="math" instant="false"/> so entsprechen sich beide Werte
+                              ungefähr (<gap reason="math" instant="false"/>).</s>
+                  <s>Dies ist deshalb interessant, da während der Übergangsphase
+                              beide Phasen S und N nebeneinander im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiter_%28Physik%29%23Elektrischer_Leiter">Leiter</ref> existieren.</s>
+                  <s>Um dieses Phänomen zu erklären, sind allerdings intensivere
+                              Überlegungen notwendig.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spezifische_W%C3%A4rme">spezifische Wärmekapazit</ref>ät der Elektronen
+                              erhöht sich beim Übergang vom normal- in den supraleitenden Zustand
+                              bei <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> für
+                              Typ-I/II-Supraleiter sprunghaft (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers-Formel">Rutgers-Formel</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>In klassischen Supraleitern verringert sie sich im
+                              supraleitenden Zustand exponentiell mit der Temperatur, da
+                              Cooper-Paare keine Wärme aufnehmen können und so nur noch Elektronen
+                              zur Wärmekapazität beitragen, die über die Energielücke angeregt
+                              werden (siehe auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann-Faktor">Boltzmann-Faktor</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Die Wärmekapazität der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon">Phononen</ref> (Gitterschwingungen) bleibt beim Übergang in den
+                              supraleitenden Zustand unverändert.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der supraleitende Zustand hat wenig Einfluss auf
+                              die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A4rmeleitf%C3%A4higkeit">Wärmeleitfähigkeit</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Man muss diesen Einfluss für zwei Arten von Stoffen
+                              betrachten.</s>
+                  <s>Zum einen Stoffe, bei denen Wärme vor allem über das Gitter
+                              weitergegeben wird, was einen Großteil von Leitern ausmacht.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Wärmeleitung wird in der Nähe von <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> durch die starken Interferenzen
+                              an den Übergängen zwischen S- und N-leitenden Schichten behindert,
+                                 bei <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> jedoch
+                              durch die fehlende Wechselwirkung mit den Elektronen im Vergleich zur
+                              normalleitenden Phase besser.</s>
+                  <s>Bei Stoffen, in denen die Elektronen einen großen Anteil an
+                              der Wärmeleitung haben, wird diese logischerweise schlechter.</s>
+                  <s>Es wurde in dieser Beziehung darüber nachgedacht, Supraleiter
+                              als über ein kritisches Feld steuerbare Schalter für Wärmeströme
+                              einzusetzen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Theorien </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Realisierte Anwendungen </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Erzeugung starker Magnetfelder </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:SuperconductingMagnet.jpg|mini|Supraleitender Magnet
+                              für eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetische_Flussdichte">magnetische Flussdichte</ref> von 7 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_%28Einheit%29">Tesla</ref>]] [[Datei:Desy tesla
+                              cavity01.jpg|mini|Supraleitender <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohlraumresonator">Hohlraumresonator</ref> aus hochreinem Niob zur
+                              Beschleunigung von Elektronen und Positronen bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESY">DESY</ref>; Länge der Struktur ca. 1 m]] <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ASQUID_de.png">mini|Schrägbild eines supraleitenden Doppelkontaktes
+                                 (SQUID) zur Messung extrem schwacher Magnetfelder</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein bedeutendes Anwendungsfeld ist die Erzeugung
+                              starker, konstanter oder nur langsam veränderter Magnetfelder.</s>
+                  <s>Der ohmsche Widerstand der Spulenwicklungen konventioneller
+                              Elektromagnete erzeugt große Wärmemengen und damit einen großen
+                              Energieverlust.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Für diese Anwendung werden bisher (2014) nur
+                              klassische Supraleiter (SL) verwendet, vor allem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legierung">Legierungen</ref> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niob">Niob</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Für starke supraleitende Spulen sind kilometerlange, nur
+                              wenige Mikrometer dünne Leiterfäden nötig; diese können aus
+                              Hochtemperatur-Supraleitern (HTSL) zurzeit noch nicht hergestellt
+                              werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine stromdurchflossene supraleitende Spule kann
+                              man in sich schließen, woraufhin der Strom im Prinzip unendlich lange
+                              verlustfrei in der Spule erhalten bleibt.</s>
+                  <s>Zum „Laden“ der in sich geschlossenen Spule
+                              wird ein kurzes Teilstück der Spule über die Sprungtemperatur
+                              geheizt.</s>
+                  <s>Dadurch wird die Spule geöffnet und kann über Zuleitungen mit
+                              Strom versorgt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn die gewünschte Stromstärke erreicht ist, wird der Heizer
+                              abgeschaltet.</s>
+                  <s>Die Spule ist dadurch wieder in sich geschlossen.</s>
+                  <s>Bei dauerhaftem Betrieb können die elektrischen Anschlüsse
+                              nach dem Laden der Spule mechanisch entfernt und der Behälter der
+                              Spule verschlossen werden.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Erhaltung des Feldes ist dann nur ein regelmäßiges
+                              Nachfüllen der Kühlmedien <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCssighelium">Flüssighelium</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCssigstickstoff">Flüssigstickstoff</ref> erforderlich.</s>
+                  <s>Ein gutes Beispiel hierfür bietet ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie">NMR</ref>-Gerät.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die größte Störung ist das sogenannte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quench_%28Supraleitung%29">Quenchen</ref> (engl. <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> = löschen), ein lokales
+                              Aussetzen der Supraleitung.</s>
+                  <s>Die nun normalleitende Stelle wirkt als elektrischer
+                              Widerstand.</s>
+                  <s>Sie heizt sich auf, wodurch sich der Widerstand noch
+                              erhöht.</s>
+                  <s>Der normalleitende Bereich vergrößert sich durch
+                              Wärmeleitung.</s>
+                  <s>So bricht innerhalb kurzer Zeit der Strom und damit das
+                              Magnetfeld zusammen.</s>
+                  <s>Da die im Magnetfeld gespeicherte Energie recht groß ist,
+                              kann dieser Vorgang zur Zerstörung der Spule führen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Supraleiter sind ideal <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamagnetismus">diamagnetisch</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Daher kann ein Strom nur an ihrer Oberfläche fließen, und für
+                              große Stromstärken ohne Überschreiten der Grenzstromdichte muss man
+                              viele dünne SL-Fäden parallel schalten.</s>
+                  <s>Durch Einbetten dieser Fäden in Kupfer wird nun erreicht,
+                              dass beim Quenchen der Strom vom normalleitenden Kupfer aufgenommen
+                              wird und die Erwärmung gering bleibt, sodass der normalleitende
+                              Bereich nicht zu schnell anwächst (<hi rend="it">stabilisierter</hi>
+                              Supraleiter).</s>
+                  <s>Damit wird eine Zerstörung des Leiters vermieden.</s>
+                  <s>Solche Spulen aus stabilisierten Supraleitern werden
+                              beispielsweise in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernspintomographie">Kernspintomographen</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilchenbeschleuniger">Teilchenbeschleunigern</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfusionsreaktor">Kernfusionsreaktoren</ref> verwendet.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Mikrowellen in supraleitenden Kavitäten </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Auch für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohlraumresonator">Hohlraumresonatoren</ref> (<hi rend="it">Kavitäten</hi>) in Teilchenbeschleunigern werden Supraleiter
+                                 verwendet<ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f9" rend="ref"/> , obwohl die kritische Feldstärke
+                              bei hohen Frequenzen deutlich absinkt.</s>
+                  <s>Oberhalb einer kritischen Frequenz werden die Cooper-Paare
+                              direkt durch Photonenabsorption aufgebrochen.</s>
+                  <s>Dann sinkt die kritische Feldstärke auf null.</s>
+                  <s>Die einzige Möglichkeit, diese Grenze weiter zu verschieben,
+                              ist eine tiefere Kühlung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Zum Beispiel wurden im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESLA">TESLA</ref>-Projekt supraleitende Kavitäten aus reinem Niob
+                              entwickelt, die jetzt (2014) in verschiedenen Elektronenbeschleunigern
+                              im Einsatz sind (siehe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearbeschleuniger%23Supraleitende_Hohlraumresonatoren">Linearbeschleuniger</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Ein Vorteil und zugleich Nachteil des Systems ist die geringe
+                              Dämpfung: Der Wirkungsgrad ist besonders hoch, gleichzeitig werden
+                              aber parasitäre Moden nicht gedämpft.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Messtechnik </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephson-Effekt">Josephson-Effekt</ref> sowie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQUID">SQUIDs</ref> erlauben die hochgenaue Messung von Magnetfeldern,
+                              z. B.</s>
+                  <s>zur Bestimmung von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoenzephalographie">Hirn-</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetokardiogramm">Herzmagnetfeldern</ref>, in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zerst%C3%B6rungsfreie_Materialpr%C3%BCfung">zerstörungsfreien Materialprüfung</ref> oder der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetik">geomagnetischen</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospektion">Prospektion</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f10" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Geplante und beginnende Anwendungen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:SupraTrans Superaleitende Magnetschwebebahn IFW Dresden
+                           2009-06-21.jpg|mini|Magnetschwebebahn <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/SupraTrans">SupraTrans</ref> auf Supraleiterbasis des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Festk%C3%B6rper-_und_Werkstoffforschung">IFW Dresden</ref>]] Die bisher bekannten supraleitenden
+                           Materialien müssen entweder sehr aufwendig auf extrem niedrige
+                           Temperaturen gekühlt werden, oder sie lassen sich schwer verarbeiten.</s>
+                  <s>Die folgenden Anwendungen werden erst dann wirtschaftlich, wenn
+                           Materialkombinationen gefunden werden, deren Verwendbarkeit durch keinen
+                           dieser Nachteile mehr Probleme als Vorteile bringt.</s>
+                  <s>Optimal wäre ein Supraleiter bei Umgebungstemperatur.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Energietransport und -umwandlung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg|mini|Elektrische Kabel für
+                              Teilchen­beschleuniger am <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN">CERN</ref>; oben: normale Kabel für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Electron-Positron_Collider">LEP</ref>; unten: supraleitende Kabel für den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider">LHC</ref>]] Bei Supraleitern zweiter Art zum
+                              Transport höherer elektrischer Ströme besteht die Schwierigkeit, dass
+                              diese Materialien beim Übergang in den Normalzustand nicht wie die
+                              Metalle zu normalen, guten elektrischen Leitern werden, sondern
+                              – in guter Näherung – zu Isolatoren.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn ein solcher stromführender Supraleiter in den
+                              Normalzustand wechselt (zum Beispiel durch Überschreiten der maximalen
+                              Stromdichte), so wird der durch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induktivit%C3%A4t">Leitungsinduktivität</ref> kurz weiterfließende Strom
+                              das Material nach dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joulesches_Gesetz">Jouleschen Gesetz</ref> erhitzen, was bis zur
+                              vollständigen Zerstörung des Supraleiters führen kann.</s>
+                  <s>Daher ist es notwendig, solche Materialien, beispielsweise
+                              als mikroskopisch dünne Fäden, in einen normalen Leiter
+                              einzubetten.</s>
+                  <s>Die Schwierigkeit, aus diesen keramikartigen Materialien
+                              dünne Fäden zu ziehen, ist eines der Haupthindernisse für den Einsatz
+                              bei höheren Stromstärken.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Es entstanden bereits erste Anlagen in
+                              Energieverteilungsnetzen, bei denen Hochtemperatursupraleiter als
+                              Kurzschlussstrombegrenzer eingesetzt werden.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f11" rend="ref"/> Dabei bewirkt eine erhöhte Stromdichte im
+                              Kurzschlussfall, dass der Supraleiter zuerst in den Mischbereich und
+                              anschließend in den normalleitenden Bereich übergeht.</s>
+                  <s>Der Vorteil gegenüber Kurzschlussstrombegrenzungsdrosseln
+                              ist, dass ein Spannungsabfall während des Normalbetriebes nur stark
+                              vermindert auftritt.</s>
+                  <s>Gegenüber herkömmlichen Sicherungen und Kurzschlussbegrenzern
+                              mit Sprengkapseln hat ein solcher Strombegrenzer den Vorteil, dass der
+                              supraleitende Zustand ohne Austausch von Betriebsmitteln
+                              wiedererreicht wird und ein Normalbetrieb kurze Zeit nach dem
+                              Fehlerfall wieder möglich ist.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Für Fernleitungen sind Supraleiter kaum
+                              konkurrenzfähig, denn elektrische Leistung kann bei hohen Spannungen
+                              auch auf klassischen Leitungen effizient übertragen werden.</s>
+                  <s>Jedoch lässt sich durch ihre höhere erzielbare Stromdichte
+                              mehr elektrische Leistung auf gleichem Raum übertragen.</s>
+                  <s>Daher können supraleitende Kabel dort eingesetzt werden, wo
+                              wegen gestiegenen Bedarfs Erweiterungen bei begrenztem baulichen Raum
+                              nötig sind.</s>
+                  <s>Ein nur mit flüssigem Stickstoff gekühltes, 1 km langes
+                              Hochtemperatur-Supraleiterkabel für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreiphasenwechselstrom">Dreiphasenwechselstrom</ref> mit 10 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilovolt">kV</ref> wird seit Mai 2014 in der Stromversorgung der Stadt Essen
+                              im Rahmen eines Pilotprojekts eingesetzt und ersetzt eine herkömmliche
+                              110-kV-Leitung.</s>
+                  <s>Zum Betrieb der Kühlung genügt eine Station an einem Ende des
+                                 Kabels.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f12" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f13" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.S00.18619-f14" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.Z02.33504">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/Z02.33504 Zeitkomplexität, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitkomplexität: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Lómelinde, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Zeitkomplexität</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s> Unter der <hi rend="bo">Zeitkomplexität</hi> eines <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem">Problems</ref> wird in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatik">Informatik</ref> die Anzahl der Rechenschritte verstanden, die ein <hi rend="it">optimaler</hi>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmus">Algorithmus</ref> zur Lösung dieses Problems benötigt, in Abhängigkeit
+                        von der Länge der Eingabe.</s>
+                  <s>Man spricht hier auch von der <hi rend="bo">asymptotischen
+                           Laufzeit</hi> und meint damit, in Anlehnung an eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptote">Asymptote</ref>, das Zeitverhalten des Algorithmus für eine potenziell
+                        unendlich große Eingabemenge.</s>
+                  <s>Es interessiert also nicht der Zeitaufwand eines konkreten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerprogramm">Programms</ref> auf einem bestimmten Computer, sondern viel mehr, <hi rend="it">wie</hi> der Zeitbedarf wächst, wenn mehr Daten zu verarbeiten
+                        sind, also z. B.</s>
+                  <s>ob sich der Aufwand für die doppelte Datenmenge verdoppelt oder
+                        quadriert (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skalierbarkeit">Skalierbarkeit</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Die Laufzeit wird daher in Abhängigkeit von der Länge <hi rend="it">n</hi> der Eingabe angegeben und für immer größer werdende <hi rend="it">n</hi>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotisch">asymptotisch</ref> unter Verwendung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau-Notation">Landau-Notation</ref> (Groß-O-Notation) abgeschätzt.</s>
+                  <s>Eine genauere Laufzeitabschätzung von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekursionsgleichung">Rekursionsgleichungen</ref> bietet auch das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master-Theorem">Mastertheorem</ref> oder die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitutionsmethode">Substitutionsmethode</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wird der Begriff der Zeitkomplexität auf einen
+                        konkreten Algorithmus bezogen, so ist damit die Anzahl der Schritte gemeint,
+                        die der Algorithmus für die Bearbeitung einer Eingabe mit bestimmter
+                           Länge <hi rend="it">n</hi> benötigt (im besten, schlechtesten oder
+                        durchschnittlichen Fall, siehe unten).</s>
+                  <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komplexit%C3%A4tstheorie">Komplexitätstheorie</ref> ist der eigentliche Gegenstand
+                        der Betrachtung aber die Komplexität von <hi rend="it">Problemen</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komplexit%C3%A4t_%28Informatik%29">Komplexität</ref> von Algorithmen ist nur insofern
+                        interessant, als daraus Aussagen über das behandelte Problem geschlossen
+                        werden können.</s>
+                  <s>In der Praxis ist diese aber häufig interessant, vor allem um für
+                        einen konkreten Kontext einen geeigneten Algorithmus auszuwählen: So ist
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubblesort">Bubblesort</ref> zwar für große Datenmengen ein recht langsames
+                        Verfahren, eignet sich aber aufgrund des geringen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhead_%28EDV%29">Overheads</ref> gut für kleine Datenmengen (insbesondere für <hi rend="it">n</hi> ≤ 8).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Zeitkomplexität wird immer in Bezug auf ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinenmodell">Maschinenmodell</ref> angegeben.</s>
+                  <s>In der Regel ist das Bezugsmodell die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turingmaschine">Turingmaschine</ref>, alternativ kann die Zeitkomplexität aber auch in
+                        Bezug auf eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registermaschine">Registermaschine</ref> angegeben werden, die in ihrem
+                        Verhalten mehr den tatsächlich existierenden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer">Computern</ref> ähnelt.</s>
+                  <s>Für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralleler_Algorithmus">parallele Algorithmen</ref> kann ein paralleles
+                        Maschinenmodell wie die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Random_Access_Machine">PRAM</ref> verwendet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Ein in Beziehung zum PRAM Modell stehendes Modell ist das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externspeichermodell">Externspeichermodell</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Jedes Problem, welches effizient im PRAM gelöst werden kann, kann
+                        auch effizient im Externspeicher berechnet werden.<ptr target="WPD17.Z02.33504-f1" rend="ref"/>
+                        Zudem wird zwischen der Komplexität für <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinismus_%28Algorithmus%29">deterministische</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichtdeterminismus">nichtdeterministische</ref> Maschinen unterschieden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komplexit%C3%A4tstheorie">Komplexitätstheorie</ref> ist die Zeitkomplexität neben der
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platzkomplexit%C3%A4t">Platzkomplexität</ref> der am häufigsten untersuchte Aspekt
+                        von Algorithmen und Problemen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Zeitkomplexität aller Algorithmen, die ein Problem lösen, liegt
+                        beispielsweise einer Reihe bedeutsamer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komplexit%C3%A4tsklasse">Komplexitätsklassen</ref> zu Grunde.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Varianten </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Man unterscheidet die folgenden Varianten zur
+                           Laufzeitabschätzung: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worst_Case">worst-case</ref>-Laufzeit (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Sprache">engl.</ref>
+                           <hi rend="it">schlechtester Fall</hi>) gibt an, wie lange der
+                              Algorithmus maximal braucht.</s>
+                        <s>Für viele Algorithmen gibt es nur wenige Eingaben, die diese
+                              worst-case-Laufzeit erreichen, weshalb sie nicht unbedingt eine
+                              realistische Abschätzung ist.</s>
+                        <s>Handelt es sich aber um <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echtzeitsystem">Echtzeitsysteme</ref>, so muss die worst-case-Laufzeit natürlich
+                              berücksichtigt werden.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_Case">average-case</ref>-Laufzeit (engl. <hi rend="it">durchschnittlicher Fall</hi>) gibt die erwartete Laufzeit bei
+                              einer gegebenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilung">Verteilung</ref> der Eingaben an.</s>
+                        <s>Da allerdings die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilung">Verteilung</ref> der Eingaben bei Programmen nicht
+                              immer bekannt ist, ist die Berechnung der average-case-Laufzeit in
+                              diesen Fällen nur unter einschränkenden Annahmen möglich.</s>
+                        <s>Siehe auch: <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amortisierte_Laufzeitanalyse">Amortisierte Laufzeitanalyse</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Case">best-case</ref>-Laufzeit (engl. <hi rend="it">bester Fall</hi>)
+                              gibt an, wie lange der Algorithmus mindestens braucht, also selbst für
+                              die Eingaben, auf denen er ideal arbeitet.</s>
+                        <s>Diese <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untere_Schranke">untere Schranke</ref> zur Lösung des Problems wird
+                              nur selten angegeben, da sie nur für wenige Fälle zutrifft und die
+                              best-case-Laufzeit in der für die schlechteren Fälle enthalten
+                              ist.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Abhängige Zeitkomplexität </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Meistens kann die Zeitkomplexität nur in Abhängigkeit von
+                           anderen Zeitkomplexitäten angegeben werden.</s>
+                     <s>So wird bei Sortieralgorithmen die Zeit eigentlich nicht direkt
+                           gemessen, sondern in „Vergleichsoperationen“, unter der
+                           Annahme dass jeder solcher Vergleich eine konstante Zeit benötigt.</s>
+                     <s>Während das bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datentyp%23Elementare_Datentypen">elementaren Datentypen</ref> normalerweise gilt, ist
+                           dies beispielsweise für Zeichenketten bereits nicht der Fall.</s>
+                     <s>Müssen zwei Algorithmen (in diesem Beispiel zwei
+                           Sortieralgorithmen) jedoch ähnliche Vergleiche durchführen, so ist das
+                           Ergebnis weiterhin aussagekräftig.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In manchen Fällen kann auch nur so eine definitive
+                           Aussage getroffen werden.</s>
+                     <s>Beispielsweise führt der Algorithmus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBSCAN">DBSCAN</ref> für jeden Punkt genau eine Nachbarschaftsanfrage
+                           durch.</s>
+                     <s>Da eine Nachbarschaftsanfrage als die „langsamste“
+                           Operation im Algorithmus gilt, sagt man auch er ist
+                           „linear“ (in der Anzahl der Nachbarschaftsanfragen).</s>
+                     <s>Möchte man ihn jedoch mit einem Algorithmus vergleichen, der
+                           keine Nachbarschaftsanfragen durchführt, braucht man ein anderes Maß.</s>
+                     <s>Je nach einer vorhandenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexstruktur">Indexstruktur</ref> kann eine Nachbarschaftsanfrage jedoch
+                           unterschiedlich schnell beantwortet werden (ohne dass dies den
+                           Algorithmus DBSCAN verändern würde).</s>
+                     <s>Ohne Index-Unterstützung hat DBSCAN dann eine
+                           „quadratische“ Zeitkomplexität (in der Anzahl der
+                           Distanzberechnungen).</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Beispiel </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In einer Liste werden zwanzig Namen gespeichert.</s>
+                     <s>Es soll nun ein vorhandener Name eingegeben und verglichen
+                           werden.</s>
+                     <s>Die Liste wird beginnend mit dem ersten Eintrag durchsucht bis
+                           der Name gefunden ist.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> best case: <hi rend="it">Der gesuchte Name ist
+                                 der erste in der Liste, die Suchzeit ist 1.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> worst case: <hi rend="it">Der gesuchte Name ist
+                                 der letzte in der Liste, Die Suchzeit ist 20. Diese Suchzeit würde
+                                 sich auch einstellen, wenn der Name nicht in der Liste wäre.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> average case: <hi rend="it">Ist der Name
+                                 definitiv in der Liste, beträgt der average case 10,5.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Spricht man einfach von <hi rend="it">Zeitkomplexität</hi>, so ist meistens die Abschätzung für den <hi rend="it">worst case</hi> gemeint.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Für eine realistische Abschätzung der Laufzeit
+                           eignet sich bei komplexen Algorithmen die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amortisierte_Laufzeitanalyse">amortisierte Analyse</ref>, die die durchschnittlichen
+                           Kosten des Algorithmus für alle möglichen Eingaben betrachtet, statt nur
+                           für den besten/schlechtesten/gleichverteilten Fall.</s>
+                     <s>Dabei ist entscheidend, wie <hi rend="it">wahrscheinlich</hi> es
+                           ist, dass ein bestimmter Fall eintritt.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Art der Untersuchung eignet sich besonders, wenn man den
+                           Aufwand einer Teiloperation eines größeren Algorithmus betrachtet: Beim
+                           Sortieren mittels eines <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci-Heap">Fibonacci-Heaps</ref> beispielsweise ist die Operation des
+                           Einsortierens eines neuen Eintrags zwar im schlechtesten Fall recht
+                           aufwändig, aber diese kommen nur einmal beim Durchlauf des
+                           Gesamtalgorithmus vor, in allen folgenden Schritten ist der Heap bereits
+                           „fast sortiert“, und der einzelne Schritt ist billig.</s>
+                     <s>Das Problem an der amortisierten Analyse ist, dass sie nicht
+                           einfach durchzuführen ist, da man zunächst eine Funktion entwickeln muss,
+                           die das Verhalten der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datenstruktur">Datenstruktur</ref> möglichst genau modelliert und damit angibt, wie
+                           wahrscheinlich die einzelnen Fälle sind.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationstheorie">Informationstheorie</ref> wird die Zeitkomplexität
+                           verwendet, um die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmische_Tiefe">Algorithmische Tiefe</ref> einer Datenmenge zu
+                           bestimmen.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Siehe auch </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platzkomplexit%C3%A4t">Platzkomplexität</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-NP-Problem">P-NP-Problem</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP_%28Komplexit%C3%A4tsklasse%29">NP (Komplexitätsklasse)</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomialzeit">Polynomialzeit</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effizienz_%28Informatik%29">Effizienz</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Literatur </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.B00.26993">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/B00.26993 Biomembran, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomembran: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Ghilt, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Biomembran</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine <hi rend="bo">Biomembran</hi> ist eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran_%28Trennschicht%29">Trennschicht</ref> zwischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellkompartiment">Zellkompartimenten</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Innerhalb der Zelle trennen unterschiedlich aufgebaute Biomembranen
+                        das Innere von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organell">Organellen</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakuole">Vakuolen</ref> vom <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasma">Cytoplasma</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Biomembran hat durch Membrankomponenten eine aktive Rolle beim
+                        selektiven Transport von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCl">Molekülen</ref> und der Übermittlung von Informationen zwischen den
+                        beiden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellkompartiment">Kompartimenten</ref>, zwischen denen sich diese Biomembran
+                        befindet.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Permeabilität </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Da die Biomembran vor allem eine Trennschicht
+                           zwischen verschiedenen Bereichen darstellt, ist sie für die meisten
+                           Moleküle undurchlässig.</s>
+                  <s>Kleinere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipophil">lipophile</ref> Moleküle können frei durch die
+                           Lipiddoppelschicht der Membran diffundieren, wie zum Beispiel <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlendioxid">Kohlendioxid</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkohole">Alkohole</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harnstoff">Harnstoff</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Um die Durchlässigkeit der Membran für lipophobe Teilchen wie
+                           Wasser, oder große Teilchen wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion">Ionen</ref>
+                           oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zucker">Zuckermolek</ref>üle zu ermöglichen, sind in die Membran verschiedene
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportprotein">Transportproteine</ref> eingelagert, die für den
+                           Transport bestimmter Stoffe zuständig sind.</s>
+                  <s>Deshalb spricht man von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selektive_Permeabilit%C3%A4t">selektiver Permeabilität</ref>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.B00.26993-f1" rend="ref"/> .</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Aufbau </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine Biomembran ist stets topologisch geschlossen und umschließt
+                           einen Raum.</s>
+                  <s>Nicht in sich geschlossene Membranen kommen in intakten Zellen
+                           nicht vor.</s>
+                  <s>Biomembranen sind asymmetrisch: sie haben eine dem Cytoplasma
+                           zugewandte <hi rend="it">plasmatische Seite</hi> (P-Seite) und eine <hi rend="it">extraplasmatische Seite</hi> (E-Seite).<ptr target="WPD17.B00.26993-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Biomembranen bestehen aus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipide">Lipiden</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein">Proteinen</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>An die Proteine können Kohlenhydratketten geknüpft sein.</s>
+                  <s>Der Lipidanteil bildet als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipiddoppelschicht">Lipiddoppelschicht</ref> die Grundsubstanz der Membran
+                           und ist für ihre besonderen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physikalische_Chemie">physikochemischen</ref> Eigenschaften
+                           verantwortlich.</s>
+                  <s>Insbesondere wirkt diese Doppelschicht als passive
+                           Trennschicht.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroide">Steroide</ref> wie das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterin">Cholesterin</ref> gehen eine hydrophobe Wechselwirkung mit den
+                           Lipiden ein und verfestigen, bei hohen Konzentrationen in der Biomembran,
+                           die ansonsten flexible Biomembran.</s>
+                  <s>Darüber hinaus sind auf und innerhalb der Membran <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein">Proteine</ref> verteilt, welche die aktiven Funktionen der Membran
+                           übernehmen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Proteine haben nur eine sehr geringe Stützfunktion der
+                           Biomembran, da sie durch die Lipidschichten schwimmen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Biomembranen können anhand ihrer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichte_%28Physik%29">Dichte</ref> charakterisiert werden; sie liegt meist
+                           zwischen 1,12 und 1,22 g·cm<hi rend="super">−3</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Die Dichte ist vom Gewichtsverhältnis der Proteine zu den
+                           Lipiden abhängig: je nach Funktion der Membran werden Werte von 0,25
+                              (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin">Myelinmembran</ref>, geringer Proteinanteil), 1,3 (Plasmamembran von
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythrozyten">Erythrozyten</ref>), 2,5 (Plasmamembran von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli">E.
+                              coli</ref>), 2,9 (Innere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrien">Mitochondrienmembran</ref>) bis hin zu einem Wert von 5 in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purpurmembran">Purpurmembran</ref> bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halobacterium">Halobacterium</ref> (hoher Proteinanteil) gefunden.<ptr target="WPD17.B00.26993-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In bestimmten Arten von Zell<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organell">organellen</ref> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellkern">Zellkern</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrium">Mitochondrium</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid">Plastid</ref>) treten Biomembranen als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppelmembran">Doppelmembran</ref> auf.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Lipiddoppelschicht </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> Die
+                              Lipiddoppelschicht besteht größtenteils aus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphiphil">amphiphilen</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipide">Phospholipiden</ref>, die eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophil">hydrophile</ref> Kopfgruppe und eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophob">hydrophobe</ref> Schwanzgruppe (meistens <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlenwasserstoff">Kohlenwasserstoffketten</ref>) besitzen.</s>
+                  <s>In Wasser bildet sich, als eine Folge des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophober_Effekt">hydrophoben Effektes</ref>, eine Doppelschicht, bei
+                              der die hydrophoben Schwänze nach innen und die hydrophilen Köpfe nach
+                              außen zeigen.</s>
+                  <s>Wegen des hydrophoben Kerns ist eine solche
+                              Lipiddoppelschicht nahezu undurchlässig für Wasser und wasserlösliche
+                              Moleküle, gleichzeitig aber sehr flexibel und mechanisch schwer zu
+                              zerstören.</s>
+                  <s>Aus diesem Grund hinterlässt selbst ein Einstich mit einer
+                              Pipette kein Loch in der Membran.</s>
+                  <s>Dafür kann sie durch Lipidlösungsmittel und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipasen">Lipasen</ref> zerstört werden.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Membranen sind aus drei Haupttypen von Lipiden
+                              aufgebaut: Phosphoglyceride, Sphingolipide und Cholesterin.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ALipid_bilayer_fluid.svg">mini|Schema der (flüssigen) Lipiddoppelschicht einer
+                                 Biomembran</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Lipiddoppelschicht einer Biomembran ist
+                              normalerweise flüssig, d. h.</s>
+                  <s>die Lipide und Proteine sind in der Ebene der Membran recht
+                              beweglich.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Austausch von Lipiden zwischen den beiden Schichten oder
+                              gar ein Lösen eines Lipids von der Membran ist jedoch sehr selten.</s>
+                  <s>Eine gezielte Bewegung von einer Membranseite zur anderen
+                                 (<hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flipflop_%28Zellbiologie%29">Flipflop</ref>
+                     </hi>) ist normalerweise nur unter dem aktiven Mitwirken von
+                              speziellen Proteinen (sogenannte <hi rend="it">Flippasen</hi> und <hi rend="it">Floppasen</hi>) unter Verbrauch von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosintriphosphat">Adenosintriphosphat</ref> (ATP) möglich.</s>
+                  <s>Dabei transportieren Flippasen Lipide von der Außenseite der
+                              Plasmamembran zur cytosolischen Seite.</s>
+                  <s>Floppasen sind klassische ABC-Transporter und befördern
+                              Membranlipide von der cytosolischen Seite der Plasmamembran nach
+                              außen.</s>
+                  <s>Weitere Transporter für Membranlipide sind <hi rend="it">Scramblasen</hi>, die allerdings nicht ATP-abhängig Membranlipide
+                              in Richtung ihres Konzentrationsgradienten austauschen, bis sich ein
+                              Gleichgewicht eingestellt hat.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s> Wie flüssig die Lipiddoppelschicht ist, hängt
+                              vor allem von der Anzahl der Doppelbindungen in den hydrophoben
+                              Kohlenwasserstoffketten der Lipide ab, einige <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterien">Bakterien</ref>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.B00.26993-f5" rend="ref"/> nutzen auch Kettenverzweigungen.</s>
+                  <s>Je mehr, desto flüssiger ist die Membran.</s>
+                  <s>Andererseits wird der Grad der Flüssigkeit durch andere
+                              eingelagerte Moleküle bestimmt.</s>
+                  <s>Cholesterin zum Beispiel vermindert einerseits die Fluidität,
+                              verhindert aber bei niedrigen Temperaturen, dass sich die Membran <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel">gelartig</ref> verfestigt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_E">Vitamin E</ref> ist ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidans">Antioxidans</ref> (wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascorbins%C3%A4ure">Vitamin C</ref>), es schützt die ungesättigten
+                              Kohlenwasserstoffketten der Phospholipide der Biomembran vor der
+                              Zerstörung durch freie Radikale (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidperoxidation">Lipidperoxidation</ref>).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Membranproteine </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ACell_membrane_detailed_diagram_de.svg">mini|500px|Modell der Zellmembran nach dem
+                                 Flüssig-Mosaik-Modell</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Verschiedene Arten von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membranprotein">Membranproteinen</ref>, die in die Lipiddoppelschicht eingelagert
+                              sind, sorgen über <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein-Lipid-Interaktion">Protein-Lipid-Interaktionen</ref> für
+                              unterschiedliche Eigenschaften der Biomembranen.</s>
+                  <s>Auch die beiden Seiten einer Biomembran können sich durch die
+                              Anordnung der Membranproteine stark unterscheiden.</s>
+                  <s>Während beispielsweise <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rezeptor_%28Biochemie%29">Rezeptoren</ref> für Zell-Zell-Kommunikation und für
+                              Detektion von Umweltveränderung nach außen hin gerichtet sind, weisen
+                              an Reaktionen beteiligte Enzyme nach innen (sie liegen also im
+                              Cytoplasma).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Viele Proteine sind am <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrantransport">Membrantransport</ref> beteiligt, d. h.</s>
+                  <s>am Stoffaustausch und der Signalübertragung über spezifische
+                              Rezeptoren.</s>
+                  <s>Gut untersucht ist eine Vielzahl von Membranproteinen, die
+                              unterschiedliche Zellarten und deren Reifestadien charakterisieren und
+                              sich von Individuum zu Individuum unterscheiden können (zum Beispiel
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blutgruppe">Blut-</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Leukocyte_Antigen">Gewebegruppen</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Dazu gehören auch Moleküle (meist Glykoproteine), die nach
+                              dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schl%C3%BCssel-Schloss-Prinzip">Schlüssel-Schloss-Prinzip</ref> zur
+                              Eigen-Fremd-Unterscheidung beitragen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Nach dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCssig-Mosaik-Modell">Flüssig-Mosaik-Modell</ref> sind die Membranproteine
+                              nicht starr in der Membran fixiert, sondern zu hochdynamischen
+                              Ortsveränderungen innerhalb der Membran fähig.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Dynamik bildet die Voraussetzung für die Auslösung
+                              mannigfacher Signalketten auf Zellebene sowohl intrazellulär als auch
+                              zwischen kooperierenden Zellen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eine Einteilung der Membranproteine ist nach
+                              ihrer Verankerung in der Lipiddoppelschicht möglich: </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Funktion </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zytoplasma">Zytoplasma</ref> im Inneren einer Zelle wird durch eine
+                           Biomembran nach außen abgegrenzt.</s>
+                  <s>Diese nennt man <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellmembran">Zellmembran</ref>, <hi rend="it">Plasmamembran</hi>, <hi rend="it">Plasmalemma</hi> oder <hi rend="it">Membrana cellularis</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Biomembranen besitzen die folgenden Aufgaben: </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Fluidität </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3ALipid_unsaturation_effect.svg">mini|Einfluss ungesättigter Fettsäuren auf die
+                              Membranstruktur</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Fluidität einer Biomembran hängt von der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatur">Temperatur</ref> ab.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Membran aus Phosphatidylcholin und Phosphatidylethanolamin,
+                           deren Fettsäurereste gesättigt sind, wäre bei 37 °C recht fluid.</s>
+                  <s>In diesem Zustand könnte man die Membran als zweidimensionalen
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCssigkristall">Flüssigkristall</ref> betrachten.</s>
+                  <s>Die Längsachsen der Phospholipide richten sich parallel aus, die
+                           Phospholipide selbst können sich drehen und in der Ebene frei
+                           bewegen.</s>
+                  <s>Bis zu einer gewissen Temperatur, der Übergangstemperatur, ist
+                           die Bewegung der Phospholipide stark eingeschränkt und die
+                           Membraneigenschaften ändern sich, der Zustand ähnelt jetzt eher dem eines
+                           gefrorenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel">Gels</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die Übergangstemperatur hängt von der Art der Lipide ab; je
+                           kürzer sie sind und je mehr <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppelbindung">Doppelbindungen</ref> sie enthalten, desto geringer ist sie.</s>
+                  <s>Cholesterin stört die gewöhnliche Struktur der Membran und
+                           verringert die Mobilität der Membranlipide.</s>
+                  <s>Die Übergangstemperatur ist dann nicht mehr eindeutig zu
+                           bestimmen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Bedeutung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Fluidität einer Biomembran liegt zwischen starr und
+                              flüssig und erlaubt so eine gewisse Struktur.</s>
+                  <s>Membranproteine können sich zu funktionalen Einheiten
+                              zusammenlangern und später wieder trennen.</s>
+                  <s>Dies ist zum Beispiel wichtig für die Photosynthese.</s>
+                  <s>Fluidität spielt auch eine große Rolle bei der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrangenese">Membrangenese</ref> und ist wichtig für viele grundlegende
+                              Prozesse wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellteilung">Zellteilung</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellwachstum">Zellwachstum</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekretion">Sekretion</ref>, etc. Während die Temperatur oft schwankt, muss
+                              die Membranfluidität dabei konstant bleiben.</s>
+                  <s>Um dies zu erreichen, können die Membranlipide modifiziert
+                              werden: Möglich ist ein Austausch von Phospholipiden; <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desaturase">Desaturasen</ref> können aus Einfachbindungen Doppelbindungen
+                              bilden, Phosphatrückgrat und Lipidschwänze der Phospholipide können
+                              umverteilt werden und es kann ein höherer Anteil an ungesättigte
+                              Fettsäuren produziert werden als vorher.</s>
+                  <s>So ist speziell <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechselwarm">wechselwarmen</ref> Lebewesen eine Umweltanpassung möglich.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Lipidflöße </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der Biomembran sind Lipidmoleküle nicht
+                              gleichmäßig verteilt, sondern es existieren Mikrodomänen mit
+                              besonderer Lipidzusammensetzung.</s>
+                  <s>Speziell Cholesterin und Sphingolipide neigen zu solch einem
+                              Zusammenschluss.</s>
+                  <s>Manche Proteine, wie solche mit GPI-Anker, sammeln sich in
+                              solchen Bereichen an, während andere dort besonders selten zu finden
+                              sind.</s>
+                  <s>Vermutlich sind Lipidflöße sehr klein und in einem ständigen
+                              Prozess der Auflösung und Neubildung begriffen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Geschichte </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AMembran2.png">mini|Schema einer Lipid-Doppelschicht mit peripheren
+                              Proteinen (Sandwich-Modell)</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AVersuch_zum_Fluid-Mosaic-Modell.png">mini|150px|Versuchsschema des Versuchs von und von
+                              1972</ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Weblinks </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p> </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.O04.25955">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/O04.25955 Ornithomimosauria, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithomimosauria: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Hadibe, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Ornithomimosauria</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Schädel wies wie bei allen Theropoda mehrere
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%A4delfenster">Schädelfenster</ref> auf.</s>
+                  <s>Die beiden Temporalfenster (die Schädelfenster der
+                              Schläfenregion) waren klein, das Antorbitalfenster (das Schädelfenster
+                              vor dem Auge) hingegen vergrößert.</s>
+                  <s>Zusätzlich waren davor noch ein Maxillarfenster und manchmal
+                              noch ein weiteres Promaxillarfenster vorhanden.</s>
+                  <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasenbein">Nasenbein</ref> war langgestreckt, das paarige <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirnbein">Stirn-</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheitelbein">Scheitelbein</ref> bildeten die flache Schädeldecke.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unterkiefer">Unterkiefer</ref> war schlank und langgestreckt, das Dentale
+                              – der vordere, zahntragende Teil des Unterkiefers – war
+                              schlank und länglich und seitlich betrachtet annähernd dreieckig.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Fund von <hi rend="it">Ornithomimus</hi> ließ am Ober-
+                              und Unterkiefer die Überreste eines Schnabels aus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratin">Keratin</ref> erkennen, der dicht verschlossen werden konnte.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die urtümlicheren Gattungen der
+                              Ornithomimosauria besaßen noch Zähne: <hi rend="it">Pelecanimimus</hi>, der basalste Vertreter, trug rund 220 kleine
+                              Zähne im Oberkiefer (am Prämaxillare und Maxillare) und
+                              Unterkiefer.</s>
+                  <s>Bei allen anderen Tieren war der Oberkiefer zahnlos, <hi rend="it">Shenzhousaurus</hi> und <hi rend="it">Harpymimus</hi>
+                              besaßen noch Zähne im Unterkiefer, vermutlich rund neun bis elf pro
+                              Kieferhälfte.</s>
+                  <s>Alle anderen Ornithomimosauria waren gänzlich zahnlos.</s>
+                  <s>Die Zähne der urtümlichen Vertreter wiesen keine Zacken an
+                              den Zähnen (Serration) auf, wie sie für Theropoda typisch sind.</s>
+                  <s>Die Zähne waren annähernd kegelförmig und hatten einen runden
+                              Grundriss.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das Gehirn dieser Tiere dürfte relativ groß
+                              gewesen sein.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%A4delausguss">Schädelabgüsse</ref> ergaben, dass das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosencephalon">Vorderhirn</ref> (Prosencephalon) vergrößert war, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riechkolben">Riechkolben</ref> hingegen klein.</s>
+                  <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesichtssinn">Gesichtssinn</ref> war – auch aufgrund der
+                              großen Augen – vermutlich gut entwickelt, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geruchssinn">Geruchssinn</ref> hingegen nicht.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Rumpfskelett und Gliedmaßen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Struthiomimus.JPG|mini|Skelett von <hi rend="it">Struthiomimus</hi>: Erkennbar sind unter anderem der
+                              arctometatarsale Zustand des Mittelfußes – der mittlere der
+                              drei Mittelfußknochen verjüngt sich in Richtung des Unterschenkels
+                              deutlich – und die annähernd gleich langen drei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelhandknochen">Mittelhandknochen</ref>.]] Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirbels%C3%A4ule">Wirbelsäule</ref> der Ornithomimosauria bestand aus
+                              10 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halswirbel">Hals-</ref>, 13 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brustwirbel">Brust-</ref>, 6 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreuzbein">Kreuz-</ref> und rund 35 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwanzwirbel">Schwanzwirbeln</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Der Schwanz war wie bei allen Vertretern der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanurae">Tetanurae</ref> versteift.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Versteifung wurde einerseits dadurch erreicht, dass die
+                              Schwanzwirbel durch lange, nach vorne und hinten reichende
+                              Knochenstäbe (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygapophyse">Zygapophysen</ref>) und andererseits durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevronknochen">Chevronknochen</ref> (V-förmige Fortsätze an der Unterseite der
+                              Schwanzwirbel) verbunden waren.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Der Schultergürtel war leicht gebaut, im
+                              Gegensatz zu den meisten anderen Theropoda fehlte das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schl%C3%BCsselbein">Gabelbein</ref> (Furcula).</s>
+                  <s>Die Arme waren verlängert, die Hände eher groß, aber leicht
+                              gebaut und nicht an eine räuberische Lebensweise angepasst.</s>
+                  <s>Die Hand bestand aus den Strahlen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelhandknochen">Mittelhandknochen</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger">Finger</ref>) I, II und III (vom Daumen her gezählt), der erste
+                              Finger setzte sich aus zwei, der zweite Finger aus drei und der dritte
+                              Finger aus vier Fingergliedern (Phalangen) zusammen.</s>
+                  <s>Da das erste Fingerglied des ersten Fingers das längste war,
+                              waren alle Finger annähernd gleich lang.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Besonderheit – zumindest der höher entwickelten
+                              Ornithomimosauria – war, dass der Mittelhandknochen
+                              (Metacarpus) des ersten Strahls im Gegensatz zu den meisten anderen
+                              Theropoden annähernd gleich lang wie die der beiden anderen Strahlen
+                              war.</s>
+                  <s>Die Finger endeten in Krallen, die an der Unterseite
+                              abgerundet und für räuberische Zwecke ungeeignet waren.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becken_%28Anatomie%29">Becken</ref> war eher klein und leicht gebaut; das
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmbein">Darmbein</ref> war langgestreckt und trug am vorderen Ende einen
+                              nach unten ragenden Fortsatz.</s>
+                  <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schambein">Schambein</ref> ragte nach vorne und unten, das nach
+                              hinten weisende <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitzbein">Sitzbein</ref> war am hinteren Ende bei den meisten
+                              Vertretern nach vorne gebogen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Hinterbeine waren länger als die Vorderbeine
+                              und in Relation zur Körpergröße auch länger als bei den meisten
+                              anderen Theropoda.</s>
+                  <s>Der Unterschenkel war um mehr als zehn Prozent länger als der
+                              Oberschenkel, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schienbein">Schien-</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadenbein">Wadenbein</ref> waren am unteren Ende des Beines fest
+                              zusammengedrückt.</s>
+                  <s>Die erste Zehe war bei den urtümlicheren Vertretern wie bei
+                              allen Theropoda bereits verkürzt, bei den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithomimidae">Ornithomimidae</ref> fehlte sie völlig.</s>
+                  <s>Die Zehen II, III und IV waren symmetrisch nach vorne
+                              gerichtet, die dritte (mittlere) war die längste, die zweite und
+                              vierte annähernd gleich lang.</s>
+                  <s>Die drei nach vorne ragenden Zehen trugen Klauen aus <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornsubstanz">Horn</ref> (Keratin), sie waren im Querschnitt dreieckig und an
+                              der Unterseite flach.</s>
+                  <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelfu%C3%9Fknochen">Mittelfuß</ref> war schmal und verlängert.</s>
+                  <s>Bei den „urtümlichen“ Vertretern befanden sich
+                              die drei Mittelfußknochen noch nebeneinander, bei den Ornithomimidae
+                              berührten sich die oberen Enden des zweiten und vierten
+                              Mittelfußknochens und der obere Abschnitt des dritten
+                              Mittelfußknochens verjüngte sich nach oben stark.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Bau des Mittelfußes wird als
+                              „arctometatarsal“ bezeichnet und besaß gegen Ende des
+                              20. Jahrhunderts eine gewisse Bedeutung für die Systematik der
+                              „höheren“ Theropoden.</s>
+                  <s>Das Taxon, das sich auf diesem Merkmal gründete, trug den
+                              Namen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctometatarsalia">Arctometatarsalia</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Nach aktuellem Kenntnisstand zur Stammesgeschichte der
+                              „höheren“ Theropoden ist dieses Taxon identisch mit den
+                              Ornithomimosauria und der Name wird deshalb nicht mehr benutzt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Körperbedeckung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AGallimimus_Steveoc86.jpg">mini|Eine künstlerische Lebendrekonstruktion eines
+                                 befiederten </ref>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Über die Körperbedeckung (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integument_%28Zoologie%29">Integument</ref>) der Ornithomimosauria gab es lange
+                              Zeit aus dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilbericht">Fossilbericht</ref> außer den Abdrücken eines
+                              Hautkammes am Kopf und eines Kehlsacks bei <hi rend="it">Pelecanimimus</hi> keine Hinweise.</s>
+                  <s>Die Entdeckung mehrerer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gefiederte_Dinosaurier">gefiederter Dinosaurier</ref> seit Mitte der
+                              1990er-Jahre und die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenese">phylogenetischen</ref> Untersuchungen ließen es jedoch denkbar
+                              erscheinen, dass diese Dinosaurier Federn aufwiesen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Oktober 2012 wurden in einer etwa 72
+                              Millionen Jahre alten Gesteinsschicht Fossilien eines Jungtieres und
+                              zweier <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult">adulter</ref> Exemplare von <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithomimus">Ornithomimus</ref>
+                     </hi> beschrieben, die zeigen, das die Tiere eine daunenartige
+                              Befiederung hatten und die Älteren zusätzlich an den Vorderarmen
+                              längere Federn besassen, die ihren Vordergliedmaßen ein dem
+                              Vogelflügel ähnliches Aussehen gaben.</s>
+                  <s>Die späte Entwicklung der langen Vorderarmbefiederung lässt
+                              vermuten das sie möglicherweise der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikation_%28Biologie%29">Kommunikation</ref> mit Artgenossen (intraspezifische
+                              Kommunikation), dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imponierverhalten">Imponierverhalten</ref> diente oder den Eiern
+                              brütender Tiere zusätzlichen Schutz bot. Der Fund ist der erste
+                              Hinweis auf eine Ausbildung flügelartiger Vordergliedmaßen bei
+                              Dinosauriern die nicht zu den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniraptora">Maniraptora</ref> gehören.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f1" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Paläobiologie </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Fortbewegung und Sozialverhalten </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wie alle Theropoda waren die Ornithomimosauria <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeheng%C3%A4nger">Zehengänger</ref> (digitigrad) und konnten ihre Beine
+                              nur in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittalebene">Sagittalebene</ref> (vorwärts-rückwärts) bewegen
+                              – es war ihnen nicht möglich, die Gliedmaßen nach außen zu
+                              drehen, wie es etwa Säugetiere können.</s>
+                  <s>Der Körper war über dem Becken ausbalanciert, die Wirbelsäule
+                              wurde annähernd waagrecht gehalten.</s>
+                  <s>Um dennoch eine gute Sicht nach vorne zu ermöglichen, war der
+                              Hals S-förmig gebogen.</s>
+                  <s>Der versteifte Schwanz stand waagrecht nach hinten.</s>
+                  <s>Aufgrund des Baus ihrer Hinterbeine – insbesondere der
+                              langen Unterschenkel und der modifizierten Mittelfußknochen –
+                              gelten die Ornithomimosauria als schnelle Läufer.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Vergleich des Beckens und der Hinterbeine dieser
+                              Dinosaurier mit denen von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufv%C3%B6gel">Laufvögeln</ref> kam aufgrund der rekonstruierten Muskulatur zu
+                              dem Schluss, dass Ornithomimosauria die Geschwindigkeit, nicht aber
+                              die Manövrierfähigkeit der heutigen Vögel erreichten.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f2" rend="ref"/> Andere Schätzungen über die Höchstgeschwindigkeit
+                              dieser Tiere belaufen sich auf 35 bis 60 km/h.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Aussagen über das Sozialverhalten der
+                              Ornithomimosauria sind schwierig, wie bei allen nur durch Fossilfunde
+                              bekannten Tieren.</s>
+                  <s>Selbst Funde von Überresten mehrerer Tiere an einem Ort (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphoz%C3%B6nose">Taphozönose</ref>) müssen nicht auf ein Gruppenleben
+                              hindeuten, sondern können auch durch bestimmte Umstände bei der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphonomie">Einbettung</ref> der Körper im Sediment erklärt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Die meisten Funde stammen von Einzeltieren, zwei Entdeckungen
+                              sprechen aber für ein zumindest zeitweiliges Gruppenleben.</s>
+                  <s>Von <hi rend="it">Archaeornithomimus</hi> gibt es ein <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_bed">bone bed</ref>
+                     </hi> („Knochenlager“), bei dem die Überreste mehrerer
+                              Tiere an einem Ort entdeckt wurden.</s>
+                  <s>Bei Überresten von <hi rend="it">Sinornithomimus</hi> lassen
+                              die Funde auf ein plötzliches Massensterben einer ganzen Gruppe
+                              schließen, die sich sowohl aus Jungtieren als auch aus ausgewachsenen
+                              Tieren zusammensetzte.</s>
+                  <s>Ob diese beiden Gattungen das ganze Jahr über oder nur
+                              saisonal und ob auch andere Vertreter der Ornithomimosauria in Gruppen
+                              lebten, ist nicht bekannt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Nahrung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AStruthiomimus_skull.png">mini|Die Ernährung der Ornithomimosauria ist aufgrund
+                                 der meist zahnlosen Schädel nicht restlos geklärt</ref> Über die
+                              Ernährungsweise der Ornithomimosauria gibt es keine gesicherten
+                              Erkenntnisse – sowohl für die urtümlichen bezahnten Vertreter
+                              als für die zahnlosen Arten.</s>
+                  <s>Schon <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn">Henry Fairfield Osborn</ref> stellte 1917 drei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothese">Hypothesen</ref> über die Ernährung dieser Tiere auf: Sie könnten
+                              Pflanzenfresser gewesen sein, deren Nahrung aus Blättern, Früchten
+                              oder ähnlichem bestand, sie könnten Ameisen gefressen haben oder im
+                              Süßwasser lebende <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirbellose">wirbellose</ref> Tiere gejagt haben.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Andere Forscher vermuteten eine räuberische
+                                 Lebensweise,<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f2" rend="ref"/> da die Tiere zur Gruppe der
+                              Theropoda gerechnet werden, die größtenteils fleischfressende
+                              Dinosaurier umfasst.</s>
+                  <s>Sie könnten demnach kleine Wirbeltiere oder auch Eier
+                              verzehrt haben.</s>
+                  <s>Die Form der Zähne beziehungsweise die Zahnlosigkeit sowie
+                              der zierliche Bau der Vordergliedmaßen spricht jedoch gegen eine
+                              räuberische Lebensweise.</s>
+                  <s>Ein weiteres Gegenargument ist die Lage der Augen seitlich am
+                              Kopf.</s>
+                  <s>Das ermöglicht einen guten Rundumblick, verkleinert jedoch
+                              den Bereich des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoskopisches_Sehen">räumlichen Sehens</ref>, der für die
+                              Entfernungsabschätzung zur Beute bedeutsam ist.</s>
+                  <s>Viele andere, eindeutig räuberische Theropoda, haben im
+                              Gegensatz dazu mehr nach vorne gerichtete Augen, so wie auch viele
+                              andere fleischfressende Tiere.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>1999 wurden bei zwei Ornithomimosauria, dem
+                              bezahnten <hi rend="it">Shenzhousaurus</hi> und dem zahnlosen <hi rend="it">Sinornithomimus</hi>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrolith">Gastrolithen</ref> (Magensteine) entdeckt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Position des Gastrolithen innerhalb des Rumpfes könnte
+                              darauf hindeuten, dass die Dinosaurier ähnlich wie heutige
+                              pflanzenfressende Vögel einen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskelmagen">Muskelmagen</ref> besessen und Magensteine zur besseren
+                              Zerkleinerung der Nahrung verschluckt haben.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f5" rend="ref"/> Diese Entdeckung ist ein Hinweis, dass zumindest
+                              diese beiden Gattungen Pflanzenfresser gewesen sein könnten.</s>
+                  <s>Das Fehlen von knöchernen Einschlüssen und von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatit">Apatit</ref> deutet darauf hin, dass sie keine Wirbeltiere
+                              gefressen haben.</s>
+                  <s>Bei anderen gut erhaltenen Fossilfunden von Ornithomimosauria
+                              gibt es allerdings keinerlei Hinweise auf Gastrolithen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>2001 wurde bei <hi rend="it">Gallimimus</hi>
+                              eine lamellenförmige Struktur an der Spitze beider Kieferknochen
+                                 entdeckt.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f6" rend="ref"/> Diese Struktur könnte auf eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtrierer">filtrierende</ref> Nahrungsaufnahme hinweisen, das heißt, sie
+                              hätte wie ein Sieb funktioniert, um Kleinlebewesen aus dem Wasser zu
+                              fischen.</s>
+                  <s>Eine ähnliche Form der Nahrungsaufnahme findet sich auch bei
+                              heutigen Vögeln, etwa der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ffelente">Löffelente</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die kleinen Zähne an den Schnauzenspitze der urtümlichen
+                              Vertreter stellen demnach ein Frühstadium in der Evolution dieses
+                              Filtrierapparates dar.</s>
+                  <s>Gastrolithen sind kein Widerspruch zur filtrierenden
+                              Ernährung, da manche Magensteine sehr klein waren und sich solche
+                              Formen auch bei heutigen Vögeln mit gleicher Ernährung finden.</s>
+                  <s>Für diese Theorie spricht auch, dass Fossilfunde von
+                              Ornithomimosauria in Lebensräumen nahe bei Seen oder Flüssen häufiger
+                              sind als in ausgesprochen trockenen Habitaten.</s>
+                  <s>Zumindest einige dieser Dinosaurier könnten ein Teil ihrer
+                              Nahrung aus dem Wasser filtriert haben, aber vieles bei der Ernährung
+                              der Ornithomimosauria ist noch unbekannt.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Fortpflanzung </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Ornithomimosauria haben wie alle anderen Dinosaurier Eier
+                              gelegt, die Funde sind jedoch spärlich.</s>
+                  <s>Untersuchungen des Beckenkanals ergaben, dass dieser bei
+                              diesen Tieren relativ breit war, was dafür sprechen könnte, dass sie
+                              größere und weniger Eier als andere Dinosaurier gelegt haben.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f2" rend="ref"/> Aus der Iren-Dabasu-Formation im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksrepublik_China">chinesischen</ref> Autonomen Gebiet <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innere_Mongolei">Innere Mongolei</ref> gibt es fossile Eier, die
+                              spekulativ den Ornithomimosauria zugerechnet wurden.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f8" rend="ref"/> Ansonsten ist über die Fortpflanzung oder
+                              Jungenaufzucht dieser Tiere nichts bekannt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Systematik </s>
+               </head>
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Paläobiogeographie und Zeitraum </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Ornithomimosauria sind eine erdgeschichtlich relativ
+                              junge Gruppe der Dinosaurier, sie sind nur aus der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreide_%28Geologie%29">Kreidezeit</ref> bekannt.</s>
+                  <s>Der wohl älteste und urtümlichste Vertreter, <hi rend="it">Pelecanimimus</hi>, stammt aus dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barremium">Barremium</ref> (vor 130 bis 126 Millionen Jahren) und wurde in
+                              Spanien gefunden.</s>
+                  <s>Abgesehen von fragmentarischen Überresten aus den
+                              Niederlanden und Australien – die beide von Vertretern dieser
+                              Gruppe stammen könnten, aber zu spärlich für eine systematische
+                              Zuordnung sind – stammen alle Funde dieser Dinosaurier aus dem
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostasien">östlichen Asien</ref> und dem westlichen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordamerika">Nordamerika</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Aus Ostasien – der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolei">Mongolei</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksrepublik_China">China</ref> – stammen dabei die übrigen
+                              basalen Gattungen sowie einige Vertreter der Ornithomimidae.</s>
+                  <s>Die nordamerikanischen Vertreter, <hi rend="it">Ornithomimus</hi> und <hi rend="it">Struthiomimus</hi>, sind erst
+                              ab dem mittleren <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanium">Campanium</ref> oder frühen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastrichtium">Maastrichtium</ref> (vor rund 80 bis 69 Millionen Jahren)
+                              belegt.</s>
+                  <s>Zumindest einmal müssen diese Tiere also das spätere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beringia">Beringia</ref> überquert haben.</s>
+                  <s>Ob die nordamerikanischen Taxa eine gemeinsame
+                              Abstammungslinie bilden oder ob mehrmalige Wanderbewegungen
+                              stattgefunden haben, ist nicht bekannt.</s>
+                  <s>Wie alle Nicht-Vogel-Dinosaurier sind diese Tiere beim <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenaussterben">Massenaussterben</ref> am Ende der Kreidezeit
+                              ausgestorben.</s>
+                  <s>(Für die Diskussionen der Gründe für dieses Aussterben siehe
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreide-Terti%C3%A4r-Grenze">Kreide-Tertiär-Grenze</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurier%23Aussterben">Das Aussterben der Dinosaurier</ref>.) </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Äußere Systematik </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Ornithomimosauria werden innerhalb der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurier">Dinosaurier</ref> in die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theropoda">Theropoda</ref> klassifiziert, zu denen nahezu alle
+                              fleischfressenden Dinosaurier, aber auch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6gel">Vögel</ref> gerechnet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Innerhalb der Theropoda gelten sie als relativ basale Gruppe
+                              der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelurosauria">Coelurosauria</ref>, ihr <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwestertaxon">Schwestertaxon</ref> sind die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniraptora">Maniraptora</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Ein mögliches <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladogramm">Kladogramm</ref>, das die systematische Position innerhalb der
+                              Dinosaurier darstellt, sieht folgendermaßen aus:<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Innere Systematik </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Ornithomimosauria werden unterteilt in einige basale
+                              Vertreter, die noch einige ursprüngliche Merkmale wie etwa Zähne
+                              zeigen, und die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithomimidae">Ornithomimidae</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die nachfolgende Gattungsliste folgt weitgehend Peter
+                              Makovicky und anderen.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei <hi rend="it">Coelosaurus</hi> sind die
+                              Funde zu spärlich für eine systematische Zuordnung.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die innere Systematik der Ornithomimosauria ist
+                              nur bei den urtümlicheren Vertretern gut belegt.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">Pelecanimimus</hi> gilt als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwestertaxon">Schwestertaxon</ref> der übrigen Gattungen und hat als einziger
+                              noch Zähne im Oberkiefer.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">Shenzhousaurus</hi> ist Schwestertaxon der verbleibenden
+                              Ornithomimosauria, was durch ein gerades und nicht nach vorne und
+                              unten gebogenes <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitzbein">Sitzbein</ref> untermauert wird.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">Harpymimus</hi> besitzt noch Zähne im Unterkiefer und
+                              steht so der zahnlosen <hi rend="it">Garudimimus</hi>-Ornithomimidae-Klade gegenüber.</s>
+                  <s>Die Ornithomimidae haben als gemeinsame <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorphie">Synapomorphien</ref> die arctometatarsale Stellung der
+                              Mittelfußknochen (siehe oben) und den Verlust der ersten Zehe des
+                              Fußes.</s>
+                  <s>Die Abstammungslinien innerhalb der Ornithomimidae sind nicht
+                              geklärt, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik">kladistische</ref> Studien liefern keine eindeutigen
+                                 Ergebnisse.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Entdeckungs- und Forschungsgeschichte </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AOrnithomimus_edmontonicus.jpg">mini|Fossile Überreste von </ref> Der erste Vertreter
+                           der Ornithomimosauria, der entdeckt wurde, war <hi rend="it">Ornithomimus</hi>, der 1890 von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othniel_Charles_Marsh">Othniel Charles Marsh</ref> beschrieben wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Marsh prägte auch gleichzeitig die Familie Ornithomimidae, die
+                           damals noch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypisch">monotypisch</ref> war.</s>
+                  <s>1902 brachte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Lambe">Lawrence Lambe</ref> das später als <hi rend="it">Struthiomimus</hi>
+                           bezeichnete Tier ans Tageslicht.</s>
+                  <s>Aufgrund der auffälligen Merkmale wie dem zahnlosen Schnabel und
+                           der arctometatarsalen Stellung der Mittelfußknochen waren die
+                           Ornithomimidae eines der ersten höheren Dinosauriertaxa, die anerkannt
+                           wurden.</s>
+                  <s>Erste Mutmaßungen über die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A4obiologie">Paläobiologie</ref> stellte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn">Henry Fairfield Osborn</ref> 1917 auf.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                           In den 1920er- und 1930er-Jahren wurden in den Vereinigten Staaten und
+                           Kanada weitere Fossilien von diesen Tieren entdeckt, die heute allesamt
+                           in <hi rend="it">Ornithomimus</hi> oder <hi rend="it">Struthiomimus</hi>
+                           eingegliedert werden.</s>
+                  <s>1933 wurde mit dem späteren <hi rend="it">Archaeornithomimus</hi> der erste asiatische Vertreter gefunden.</s>
+                  <s>Abgesehen von dem rätselhaften <hi rend="it">Deinocheirus</hi>
+                           dauerte es danach bis 1972, bis mit <hi rend="it">Gallimimus</hi> eine
+                           neue Gattung dieser Tiergruppe zu Tage gefördert wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Im gleichen Jahr veröffentlichte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Russell">Dale
+                              Russell</ref> seine paläobiologischen Studien.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                           1976 prägte der mongolische Paläontologe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinchen_Barsbold">Rinchen Barsbold</ref> das Taxon Ornithomimosauria, zunächst nur für
+                           die Ornithomimidae, später auch für die urtümlichen Vertreter <hi rend="it">Garudimimus</hi> (1981) und <hi rend="it">Harpymimus</hi>
+                           (1984).</s>
+                  <s>1986 wurden die ersten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik">kladistischen</ref> Studien durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Gauthier">Jacques Gauthier</ref> veröffentlicht, in denen er die auch heute
+                           noch vertretene Sichtweise präsentierte, die Ornithomimosauria seien die
+                           Schwestergruppe der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniraptora">Maniraptora</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>1994 klassifizierte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_R._Holtz">Thomas R. Holtz</ref> die Ornithomimosauria als nahe Verwandte der
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troodontidae">Troodontidae</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannosauroidea">Tyrannosauroidea</ref> und nannte die gemeinsamen Taxa <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullatosauria">Bullatosauria</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctometatarsalia">Arctometatarsalia</ref>,<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f18" rend="ref"/> Sichtweisen, die heute verworfen
+                           werden.</s>
+                  <s>Im gleichen Jahr wurde mit <hi rend="it">Pelecanimimus</hi> der
+                           erste aus Europa stammende Vertreter dieser Tiergruppe beschrieben.</s>
+                  <s>Es folgten weitere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenese">phylogenetische</ref> Studien, unter anderem durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Sereno">Paul
+                              Sereno</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Padian">Kevin Padian</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshitsugu_Kobayashi">Yoshitsugu Kobayashi</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Sereno schloss beispielsweise noch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therizinosauroidea">Therizinosauroidea</ref> und die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarezsauridae">Alvarezsauridae</ref> in die Ornithomimosauria ein,<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f19" rend="ref"/> während Padian 1999 die bis heute gültige Definition der
+                           Ornithomimosauria aufstellte als das Taxon, das alle Nachkommen des
+                           letzten gemeinsamen Vorfahren von <hi rend="it">Pelecanimimus
+                              polyodon</hi> und <hi rend="it">Ornithomimus edmontonicus</hi>
+                              umfasst.<ptr target="WPD17.O04.25955-f20" rend="ref"/> Im 21. Jahrhundert setzt sich die Forschung an diesen
+                           Tieren fort.</s>
+                  <s>Neben phylogenetischen und paläobiologischen Studien werden auch
+                           immer wieder neue Gattungen beschrieben, beispielsweise <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhousaurus">Shenzhousaurus</ref>
+                     </hi> und <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinornithomimus">Sinornithomimus</ref>
+                     </hi>, und die offen gebliebenen Fragen, etwa bei der Ernährung, lassen
+                           weitere Untersuchungen erwarten.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Literatur </s>
+               </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LNA.URG.00001">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LNA/URG.00001 Ulbrich, Rüdiger: Glasbildende Sternmoleküle für photoschaltbare cholesterische Phasen. - Bayreuth, 2007 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Ulbrich, Rüdiger</author>
+                  <title>Glasbildende Sternmoleküle für photoschaltbare cholesterische Phasen</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Bayreuth</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Universität Bayreuth</publisher>
+                  <date when="2007">2007</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+            <particDesc>
+               <person>
+                  <sex>M</sex>
+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
+               </person>
+            </particDesc>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="1" type="chapter">
+               <head>1 Theorie </head>
+               <div n="1.1" type="section">
+                  <head>1.1 Der flüssigkristalline Zustand </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Eigenschaften von Flüssigkristallen liegen zwischen denen von Kristallen und denen von Flüssigkeiten.</s>
+                     <s>Sie zeigen somit sowohl viskoses bis flüssiges Verhalten von Flüssigkeiten als auch Anisotropie und Ordnung von Kristallen.</s>
+                     <s>Somit stellt der flüssigkristalline Zustand neben dem flüssigen, dem gasförmigen und dem kristallinen Zustand einen weiteren Aggregatszustand dar.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im Kristall besetzen die Atome bzw. Moleküle feste Lagen, die sich periodisch in alle drei Raumrichtungen wiederholen (Kristallgitter).</s>
+                     <s>Die Eigenschaften eines Kristalls sind richtungsabhängig (anisotrop) [1].</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Bei Flüssigkeiten gibt es bestenfalls eine Nahordnung.</s>
+                     <s>Flüssigkeiten zeigen keine richtungsabhängigen Eigenschaften; sie sind isotrop.</s>
+                     <s>Werden Kristalle geschmolzen, so gehen sie meist sofort in die isotrope Phase über.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im Gegensatz dazu beginnen Flüssigkristalle am Schmelzpunkt zu fließen, gehen aber noch nicht in die isotrope Phase über, sondern behalten eine Positions- und / oder Orientierungsordnung und sind somit anisotrope Flüssigkeiten.</s>
+                     <s>Erst wenn die Klärtemperatur erreicht ist, geht auch diese Ordnung verloren und die Schmelze geht ins Isotrope über.</s>
+                     <s>Wie bereits erwähnt, liegen die Eigenschaften von Flüssigkristallen zwischen denen von Kristallen und denen von Flüssigkeiten.</s>
+                     <s>Sie werden daher auch als 
+              <hi rend="italic">Meso</hi> phasen (griech.: Mitte) bezeichnet.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Bei Flüssigkristallen wird zwischen thermotropen und lyotropen Flüssigkristallen unterschieden [2]. Lyotrope flüssigkristalline Phasen bestehen aus mindestens zwei Komponenten.</s>
+                     <s>Eine davon ist das Lösungsmittel.</s>
+                     <s>Sie treten innerhalb bestimmter Konzentrationsbereiche auf.</s>
+                     <s>Thermotrope flüssigkristalline Phasen werden in kalamitische (stäbchenförmige) und diskotische (scheibchenförmige) Flüssigkristalle unterteilt, von denen die kalamitischen Gegenstand dieser Arbeit sind.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <pb n="2"/>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die meisten thermotropen flüssigkristallinen Phasen bestehen aus Molekülen, die einen starren Molekülteil besitzen.</s>
+                     <s>Solche Moleküle werden auch als Mesogene bezeichnet.</s>
+                     <s>Sie neigen stark dazu, sich parallel in eine Vorzugsrichtung zu orientieren.</s>
+                     <s>Je nach Orientierung spricht man von nematischen, smektischen und cholesterischen flüssigkristallinen Phasen, wobei die cholesterische mit der nematischen Phase eng verwandt ist [3]. (a) 
+              <gap instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In nematischen Phasen ordnen sich die Moleküle entlang einer Richtung, die durch den Direktor n gekennzeichnet ist und haben somit eine eindimensionale Struktur.</s>
+                     <s>Der Ordnungsparameter S beschreibt die durchschnittliche Abweichung der Moleküle von der Vorzugsrichtung [4]. 
+              <pb n="3"/>Dabei ist  </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Moleküllängsachsen.</s>
+                     <s>In einem idealen Kristall wäre der Ordnungsparameter somit eins und für eine isotrope Lösung oder Schmelze null.</s>
+                     <s>Bei Flüssigkristallen liegen die Werte des Ordnungsparameters zwischen 0.3 und 0.7, was auf die thermische Bewegung der Moleküle zurückzuführen ist.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In smektischen Phasen sind die Moleküle zusätzlich in Schichten angeordnet.</s>
+                     <s>Sie besitzen somit eine zweidimensionale Struktur.</s>
+                     <s>Smektische Phasen sind daher auch deutlich viskoser als nematische Phasen.</s>
+                     <s>Es existiert eine Vielzahl an smektischen Modifikationen, die durch verkippte oder verdrillte Anordnungen entstehen [5].</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="1.2" type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>1.2 Cholesterische Phasen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Cholesterische Phasen entsprechen einer verdrillten nematischen Phase und besitzen demzufolge eine helikale Struktur.</s>
+                     <s>Sie werden daher auch als chirale nematische Phasen bezeichnet [3]. Ihre Entdeckung geht auf den österreichischen Botaniker Reinitzer zurück, der 1888 beim Schmelzen von Cholesterylbenzoat zwei Schmelzpunkte beschrieb [6]: Einen, bei dem die Substanz in eine trübe, aber völlig flüssige Schmelze übergeht und einen, bei dem die Schmelze völlig klar wurde.</s>
+                     <s>Der Begriff „Mesophase“ wurde erst viel später 1922 von Friedel eingeführt [3].</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div n="1.2.1" type="section">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>1.2.1 Eigenschaften und Struktur </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Kennzeichnend für cholesterische Phasen ist, dass sich der Direktor der Moleküllängsachsen von Molekülebene zu Molekülebene um einen bestimmten Winkel ändert.</s>
+                        <s>Dies führt zu einer kontinuierlichen Verdrillung der Phase und damit zu einem helikalen Aufbau.</s>
+                        <s>Der Abstand zweier Molekülebenen nach einer Drehung des Direktors um 360° wird als Ganghöhe p der Helix bezeichnet.</s>
+                        <s>Die Ganghöhe liegt im Bereich von 200 bis 2.000 nm [7]. Dreht sich die Helix im Uhrzeigersinn, dann wird sie als rechtsgängig bezeichnet und ihre Ganghöhe p besitzt ein positives 
+                <pb n="4"/>Vorzeichen.</s>
+                        <s>Demzufolge ist eine linksgängige Helix gegen den Uhrzeigersinn gerichtet und ihre Ganghöhe besitzt ein negatives Vorzeichen.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Cholesterische Phasen treten nur bei chiralen Molekülen auf, wobei sie entweder aus geeigneten optisch aktiven Molekülen aufgebaut werden oder aus nematischen Phasen durch Zumischen eines optisch aktiven Hilfsstoffes induziert werden [5, 8]. Die Ursache für das Ausbilden der helikalen Struktur ist ausschließlich auf die Chiralität der Moleküle zurückzuführen.</s>
+                        <s>Daher ist die Bildung von cholesterischen Phasen nicht auf Cholesterolderivate beschränkt, sondern auch durch Zumischen cholesterischer Flüssigkristalle [9] und auch nicht-flüssigkristalliner, chiraler Verbindungen [10, 11] zu nematischen Phasen induzierbar [12]. Dabei ist zu berücksichtigen, dass ein nicht-flüssigkristalliner chiraler Hilfsstoff die Ordnung der flüssigkristallinen Phase stört.</s>
+                        <s>Dies führt dazu, dass ab einem bestimmten Anteil die flüssigkristalline Phase zusammenbricht.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Cholesterische Phasen besitzen, im Gegensatz zu smektischen Phasen, keine Konzentrationsschwelle.</s>
+                        <s>Da induzierte cholesterische Phasen eine vielfach größere optische Aktivität aufweisen als Substanzmischungen, die ihre optische Aktivität dem Zumischen von chiralen Verbindungen verdanken, können sehr geringe Mengen an optisch aktiver Verbindung nachgewiesen werden.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="1.2.2" type="section">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>1.2.2 Optische Eigenschaften </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Cholesterische Phasen zeigen zwischen zwei Objektträgern, je nachdem wie sich die Helizes anordnen, unter dem Polarisationsmikroskop verschiedene Strukturen.</s>
+                        <s>Liegen die Helixachsen parallel zur Substratoberfläche, dann ist die sog. Fingerprint-Textur sichtbar.</s>
+                        <s>Stehen die Achsen dagegen senkrecht auf der Substratoberfläche, so bildet sich die sog. Grandjean-Textur aus [13]. Des Weiteren kann auch die Focal-Conic-Textur entstehen, wenn sich einzelne Domänen mit unterschiedlich orientierten Helixachsen bilden.</s>
+                        <s>Durch Scheren oder Verwenden einer Orientierungsschicht, z.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Polyimidschichten, kann eine Orientierung der Helixachsen senkrecht zur Substratoberfläche erreicht werden.</s>
+                        <s>Liegt eine cholesterische Phase in der Grandjean-Textur vor, dann zeigt sie typische Eigenschaften.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Linear polarisiertes Licht wird in seine beiden zirkular polarisierten Komponenten aufgespalten.</s>
+                        <s>In Abhängigkeit vom Drehsinn der Helix wird eine Komponente 
+                <pb n="5"/>transmittiert und die andere reflektiert [14]. Das bedeutet, eine rechtsgängige Helix transmittiert linkszirkular polarisiertes Licht und reflektiert rechtszirkular polarisiertes Licht.</s>
+                        <s>Für eine Helix mit entgegengesetztem Drehsinn ist der Sachverhalt genau umgekehrt.</s>
+                        <s>Dabei gilt es zu beachten, dass „rechtsgängige Helix“ in Blickrichtung weg vom Betrachter und „rechtszirkular polarisiertes Licht“ in Blickrichtung zum Betrachter bedeutet.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>In den Schichten der cholesterischen Phase können zwei Brechungsindizes definiert werden.</s>
+                        <s>Zum einen der außerordentliche Brechungsindex n  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>der Mesogene der einzelnen Schichten und zum anderen der ordentliche Brechungsindex n  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Wird nun eine so vorliegende cholesterische Phase mit rechtsgängiger Helix mit linear polarisiertem Licht bestrahlt, so wird die linkszirkular polarisierte Komponente des Lichts transmittiert.</s>
+                        <s>Die Schwingungsebene des Lichts wird beim Durchdringen der Phase kontinuierlich mit der Drehung des Direktors der Phase mitgedreht.</s>
+                        <s>Somit liegt für die linkszirkular polarisierte Komponente des Lichts immer der gleiche Brechungsindex vor und wird daher transmittiert.</s>
+                        <s>Für die rechtszirkular polarisierte Lichtkomponente dagegen ändert sich der Brechungsindex sinusförmig, da sie sich entgegengesetzt zum Direktor dreht.</s>
+                        <s>Sie wird daher reflektiert.</s>
+                        <s>Bei einer linksgängigen Helix dreht sich der beschriebene Sachverhalt genau um; linkszirkular 
+                <pb n="6"/>polarisiertes Licht wird reflektiert und rechtszirkular polarisiertes Licht wird transmittiert.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap instant="false"/>Damit selektive Reflexion auftreten kann, muss die Reflexionswellenlänge  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Helixganghöhe p, gemäß Gleichung 2, übereinstimmen, denn die Wellenlänge ist das Produkt aus Ganghöhe und mittlerem Brechungsindex n [16]:  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Der Brechungsindex n ist der Mittelwert aus dem außerordentlichen Brechungsindex n  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Bei monochromatischem Licht, das parallel zur Helixachse eingestrahlt wird, ist die Breite der Reflexionsbande gegeben durch die Differenz der Brechungsindizes multipliziert mit der Ganghöhe p [17]: 
+                <pb n="7"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="1.2.3" type="section">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>1.2.3 Winkelabhängigkeit der Reflexionswellenlänge </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Da die Gleichung der selektiven Lichtreflexion (Gleichung 2) stark der Braggschen Gleichung ähnelt, ist die Wellenlänge Betrachtungswinkel  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Dies hat zur Folge, dass sich die Wellenlänge des reflektierten Lichts mit zunehmendem Betrachtungswinkel zu kürzeren Wellenlängen verschiebt.</s>
+                        <s>Anschaulich bedeutet dies, dass eine cholesterische Phase, die z. B. grünes Licht reflektiert, mit zunehmend schräger Betrachtung blauer erscheint.</s>
+                        <s>Man spricht von einem „Farbflop–Effekt“.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Die bisher formulierten Zusammenhänge gelten jedoch nur für ideal orientierte cholesterische Phasen.</s>
+                        <s>Das heißt, alle Helixachsen sind senkrecht zur Substratoberfläche ausgerichtet.</s>
+                        <s>In Realität sind die Helizes der Phase jedoch nicht perfekt zur Substratnormalen ausgerichtet, sondern die Helixachsen sind statistisch um die Substratnormale verteilt.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <pb n="8"/>
+                           <gap instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Mithilfe des Brechungsgesetzes kann aus Gleichung 5 eine weitere Gleichung abgeleitet werden, die dies berücksichtigt [20]:  </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="1.2.4" type="section">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>1.2.4 Abhängigkeit der Reflexionswellenlänge vom Anteil der chiralen Komponente </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Wie bereits beschrieben, ist es möglich aus einer nematischen Phase durch Zumischen eines geeigneten chiralen Hilfsstoffs eine cholesterische Phase zu erhalten.</s>
+                        <s>Dabei lässt sich, gemäß Gleichung 2, mit steigendem Anteil des chiralen Hilfsstoffs eine zunehmende Verschiebung der Reflexionswellenlänge zu kleineren Wellenlängen (Blauverschiebung) beobachten.</s>
+                        <s>Auf molekularer Ebene bedeutet das, dass mit steigendem Anteil des chiralen Hilfsstoffs die Verdrillung steigt und dementsprechend die Ganghöhe p sinkt.</s>
+                        <s>Folglich verhält sich die Ganghöhe p der cholesterischen Phase indirekt proportional zum molaren Anteil des chiralen Hilfsstoffes x 
+                <pb n="9"/>Auftragen der inversen Ganghöhe p Hilfsstoffes x Ausgleichsgeraden die HTP [21]: Die reduzierte Temperatur T Klärtemperatur T  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>nur für kleine Anteile des chiralen Hilfsstoffes gilt (bis ca. 10 Gew.%), da nur dann ein linearer Zusammenhang besteht.</s>
+                        <s>Gleichung 7 kann mit Gleichung 2 zu folgender Gleichung umgeformt werden:  </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Zur HTP sei angemerkt, dass sie nicht nur das Verdrillungsvermögen eines chiralen Hilfsstoffes, sondern auch die Verdrillbarkeit der nematischen Phase charakterisiert [22]. Dies hat zur Folge, dass verschiedene HTP–Werte nur dann miteinander verglichen werden können, wenn sie eine der zwei Komponenten gemeinsam haben.</s>
+                        <s>Das heißt, die HTP ist keine universelle Größe.</s>
+                        <s>Ist die HTP eines Systems bekannt, dann kann berechnet werden, wie viel des chiralen Hilfsstoffes nötig ist, um eine bestimmte Ganghöhe und damit eine bestimmte Reflexionswellenlänge zu erzielen.</s>
+                        <s>Somit ist es notwendig, die HTP für jedes System experimentell zu bestimmen, denn bis jetzt ist die Wechselwirkung zwischen nematischer Wirtsphase und chiralem Hilfsstoff nur begrenzt verstanden [5, 23, 24].</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Zusätzlich zur Abhängigkeit vom Betrachtungswinkel und vom Anteil des chiralen Hilfsstoffes ist die Ganghöhe der cholesterischen Helix abhängig von der Temperatur (Thermochromismus) [25, 26]. So zeigen viele cholesterische Phasen bei steigender Temperatur eine Verschiebung der Reflexionswellenlängen zu kleineren Wellenlängen (hypsochromer Effekt), das heißt die Ganghöhe p der cholesterischen Helix wird kleiner.</s>
+                        <s>Es sind aber auch Ausnahmen bekannt, bei denen mit steigender Temperatur eine Verschiebung zu größeren Wellenlängen (bathochromer Effekt) stattfindet [27, 28]. 
+                <pb n="10"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="1.3" type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>1.3 Photochromismus </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die erste photochrome Substanz wurde 1867 von Fritzsche beschrieben [29]. Es handelte sich dabei um Tetracen, dessen orangene Farbe sich durch Tageslicht ausbleichen und im Dunklen wieder in den ursprünglichen Zustand überführen ließ.</s>
+                     <s>orange farblos  </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Ein ähnliches Verhalten wurde 1876 von ter Meer am Kaliumsalz von Dinitroethan beobachtet [30]. Dieses färbt sich durch Tageslicht rot und erlangt im Dunklen seine gelbe Farbe zurück.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Der Begriff „photochrom“ leitet sich aus den griechischen Wörtern 
+              <hi rend="italic">phos</hi> (Licht) und  </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>photochrome Verhalten nicht auf farbige Verbindungen beschränkt ist.</s>
+                     <s>Vielmehr ist damit die Absorption von Photonen durch eine Substanz und die daraus resultierende Veränderung der absorbierenden Substanz gemeint  </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Unter Photochromismus versteht man allgemein die reversible Änderung zwischen zwei Zuständen eines Moleküls.</s>
+                     <s>Die Absorptionsspektren der zwei Zustände sollen dabei unterscheidbar sein.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>
+                        <pb n=""/>Die Änderung in die eine Richtung erfolgt meist photochemisch und in die andere Richtung sowohl photochemisch (Photochromismus des P-Typs) als auch thermisch (Photochromismus des T-Typs) [34].</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im Allgemeinen ist Zustand B (vgl. Abb. 8) thermodynamisch instabiler als Zustand A. Die Absorptionsbande von B befindet sich meistens auch bei größeren Wellenlängen.</s>
+                     <s>Zustand A kann nur durch Photonen einer bestimmten Energie und damit Wellenlänge, angeregt werden.</s>
+                     <s>Jedes absorbierte Photon führt, nach Einstein, zu einem angeregten Zustand.</s>
+                     <s>Eine Änderung der Spezies kann, laut dem Gotthuss-Draper Gesetz, nur durch absorbierte Photonen hervorgerufen werden, wobei die Zahl der absorbierten Photonen durch die Konzentration, den Extinktionskoeffizienten und die Wellenlänge des verwendeten Lichts bestimmt ist.</s>
+                     <s>Damit der Übergang von A nach B stattfinden kann, muss die Energie der Photonen ausreichen, um die Energiebarriere zwischen A und B zu überwinden.</s>
+                     <s>Die Quantenausbeute liegt bei photochromen Vorgängen immer unter eins. Das heißt, nicht jeder angeregter A Zustand geht in einen B Zustand über, sondern die angeregten Zustände werden teilweise durch Fluoreszenz, Phosphoreszenz oder thermische Umwandlungen wieder in den Grundzustand überführt. [32-34]  </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die bekannteste natürliche Form des Photochromismus findet sich beim Sehprozess [35]. Nur 11-cis-Retinal besitzt die richtige Form, um sich im aktiven Zentrum des Proteins Opsin mit der Aminogruppe einer Seitenkette zu 11-cis-Rhodopsin, der lichtempfindlichen Substanz des Sehrvorgangs, zu verbinden.</s>
+                     <s>Trifft nun ein Photon auf 11-cis-Rhodopsin, so erfolgt eine schnelle Isomerisierung zu all-trans-Rhodopsin.</s>
+                     <s>Der Isomerisierung folgt eine Kaskaden-Reaktion, da das all-trans-Rhodopsin nicht mehr in das aktive Zentrum passt.</s>
+                     <s>Dies hat letztendlich zur Folge, dass all-trans-Retinal und Opsin hydrolytisch gespalten werden.</s>
+                     <s>Durch die Reaktionsfolge werden Nervenimpulse ausgelöst, die „Sehen“ entsprechen.</s>
+                     <s>Durch das Enzym Retinalisomerase wird all-trans-Retinal wieder in 11-cis-Retinal überführt und steht wieder für den Sehvorgang zur Verfügung.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
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+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LNA.BMM.00002">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LNA/BMM.00002 Batke, Monika: Metabolismus von alkylierten polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen – Einfluss der Struktur auf benzylische Hydroxylierung und Sulfonierung in vitro und Modulation des Metabolismus in vivo. - Potsdam, 2008 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Batke, Monika</author>
+                  <title>Metabolismus von alkylierten polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen – Einfluss der Struktur auf benzylische Hydroxylierung und Sulfonierung in vitro und Modulation des Metabolismus in vivo</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Potsdam</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Universität Potsdam</publisher>
+                  <date when="2008">2008</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
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+               <person>
+                  <sex>F</sex>
+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
+               </person>
+            </particDesc>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="1" type="chapter">
+               <head>1 Einleitung</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Bioaktivierung, Mutagenität und Kanzerogenität von polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen (PAK) ist bereits ausführlich beschrieben worden.</s>
+                  <s>Während dabei rein aromatische Verbindungen im Vordergrund standen, gilt das Augenmerk in dieser Arbeit der Bioaktivierung ausgewählter alkylierter PAK (alkPAK).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>In der Literatur gibt es einige Hinweise dazu, dass die alkPAK durchaus von Bedeutung sind.</s>
+                  <s>So kann nach einer Abschätzung von  
+                  Hoffmann und Wynder (
+            <date instant="false">1971</date>) das kanzerogene Potential eines PAK-haltigen Zigarettenkondensats nur zu 1–3 % mit der Wirkung der enthaltenen rein aromatischen PAK erklärt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Weiterhin führen  
+                  Mumford u. a. (
+            <date instant="false">1995</date>) die fünffach erhöhte Mortalität durch Lungenkrebs in Xuan Wei (China) auf eine fünf bis zehnfach höhere Exposition gegenüber monoalkylierten PAK zurück.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Die Besonderheit der alkPAK ist die Tatsache, dass sie über die Alkylgruppe einen weiteren Angriffspunkt für den Fremdstoffmetabolismus bieten: Nach einer Hydroxylierung und Sulfonierung entstehen benzylische Schwefelsäureester, die unter Umständen sehr reaktiv sind.</s>
+                  <s>Bei Pyren ermöglicht beispielsweise erst die Alkylierung eine kanzerogene Aktivierung (Rice u. a., 
+            <date instant="false">1987</date>).</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="1.1" type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>1.1 Bildung und Vorkommen von alkylierten polyzyklischenaromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die alkPAK stellen eine Untergruppe der PAK dar.</s>
+                     <s>Sie besitzen zusätzlich zu den rein aromatischen PAK, die aus einem aromatischen Ringsystem mit mindestens zwei kondensierten aromatischen Ringen bestehen, noch einen oder mehrere Alkylsubstituenten bzw. Alkanobrücken.</s>
+                     <s>Als Beispiele für alkPAK sind 1-Methylpyren (1-MP) und Cyclopenta[mno]benzo[a]pyren (CPBP) in Abb. 1.1 dargestellt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Allgemein entstehen PAK – reine Aromaten und alkylierte Kongenere – bei der Verbrennung von organischem Material oder durch geochemische Diagenese.</s>
+                     <s>Bei Verbrennungstemperaturen &gt;1000 °C überwiegt die Denovo-Synthese aus kleineren Kohlenwasserstoffen, die eine Bildung der rein aromatischen Verbindungen wie Pyren, Chyrsen und Benzo[a]pyren (BP) begünstigt.</s>
+                     <s>Optimal für die Entstehung von PAK und insbesondere von alkPAK sind Verbrennungstemperaturen von 660–740 °C (Bay-
+              <pb n="2"/>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>ram und Müezzinoglu, 
+              <date instant="false">1996</date>).</s>
+                     <s>Bei tieferen Temperaturen hat die Zusammensetzung des organischen Ausgangsmaterials einen größeren Einfluss auf die Struktur der entstehenden PAK.</s>
+                     <s>Dies gilt insbesondere für die geochemischen Entstehungsprozesse, die über längere Zeiträume bei Temperaturen von 100–200 °C stattfinden (Blumer und Youngblood, 
+              <date instant="false">1975</date>).</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Die große strukturelle Vielfalt der PAK im Allgemeinen und der alkPAK im Besonderen bedingt, dass ihr Vorkommen in den wiederum vielfältigen Matrizes wie Lebensmitteln, Konsumgütern und Umweltkompartimenten nur teilweise untersucht ist.</s>
+                     <s>Insbesondere für alkPAK liegen hierzu nur relativ wenige Untersuchungen vor.</s>
+                     <s>In Tab. 1.1 sind die bisher unveröffentlichten Ergebnisse von Seidel bezüglich der in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersuchten alkPAK zusammengefasst.</s>
+                     <s>Neben den in der Tabelle aufgeführten MP und Dimethylpyrenen (DMP) wurden die gleichen Matrizes auch auf 1-,2- und 4-Ethylpyren (EP), 6-Methylanthanthren (MAA) und 6-Ethylanthanthren sowie 6-, 10- und 11-Methylbenzo[a]pyren (MBP) und 6-Ethylbenzo[a]pyren (6-EBP) untersucht.</s>
+                     <s>Diese letztgenannten alkPAK konnten – mit Ausnahme von 0,185 µg/kg 6-MBP- und 6-EBP in gegrilltem Schweinesteak – nicht nachgewiesen werden.</s>
+                     <s>Das Auftreten von 1-MP, sowie 1- und 2-Methylphenanthren und 2- und 9-Methylanthracen in Grillwürstchen wurde bereits von  
+                     Larsson u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">1983</date>) nachgewiesen.</s>
+                     <s>Der Gehalt an 1-MP variierte bei diesen Untersuchungen je nach Zubereitungsart von nicht nachweisbar bei der Zubereitung in der Bratpfanne bis zu 16,2 µg/kg im Mittel beim Grillen über einem Holzfeuer.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Einige Jahre zuvor beschäftigten sich  
+                     Snook u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">1978</date>) mit der Analyse von PAK in Zigarettenrauchkondensat.</s>
+                     <s>Sie isolierten insgesamt 20 PAK-haltige Fraktionen, wobei fünf Fraktionen ausschließlich mono- und multialkylierte PAK beinhalteten.</s>
+                     <s>Neben methylierten und ethylierten Furanen, Indenen, Naphthalenen, Fluorenen, Phen-
+              <pb n="3"/>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>anthrenen, Anthracenen und Chrysenen wurden auch DMP nachgewiesen.</s>
+                     <s>In einer neueren Arbeit von  
+                     Guillén u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">2004</date>) wurde die Bedeutung von alkPAK bei der Belastung von Speiseölen mit PAK besonders deutlich.</s>
+                     <s>Eine umfangreiche Analyse von 58 ausgewählten alkylierten und nicht alkylierten PAK in Oliven- und Sonnenblumenölen zeigte, dass mehr als 50 % des PAK-Gehalts (140–1470 µg/kg je nach Probe) auf alkylierte Derivate zurückzuführen waren.</s>
+                     <s>Naphthalen und seine Alkylderivate waren mit durchschnittlich über 40 % die dominanten Vertreter, aber auch 1-MP wurde mit 0,3 bis 2,7 µg/kg nachgewiesen.</s>
+                     <s>PAK mit mehr als vier kondensierten aromatischen Ringen spielten bei den Speiseölen mit Gehalten von zumeist 4 % und weniger eine untergeordnete Rolle.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="1.2" type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>1.2 Humane Exposition</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Der menschliche Organismus ist gegenüber PAK über verschiedene Absorptionswege und Quellen exponiert.</s>
+                     <s>So können PAK inhalativ über Atemluft und Tabakrauch, dermal durch Hautkontakt mit PAK-haltigen Gemischen und oral über Lebensmittel aufgenommen werden.</s>
+                     <s>Hinsichtlich der individuellen Hauptbelastungsquellen können Arbeiter, Raucher und nicht beruflich exponierte Nichtraucher unterschieden werden.</s>
+                     <s>Die Exposition am Arbeitsplatz findet in der Regel über die Atemluft z.B. bei Verbren-
+              <pb n="4"/>nungsprozessen oder über die Haut z.B. beim Umgang mit Rohöl, Motorenöl oder verschiedenen PAK-haltigen Syntheseprodukten statt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Der Zigarettenkonsum führt pro Packung gerauchter Zigaretten zur Aufnahme von mehreren µg PAK über die Lunge ( 
+                     Menzie u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">1992</date> 
+                  ;  
+                     Roemer u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">2004</date> 
+                  ).</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Für beruflich nicht exponierte Nichtraucher sind Lebensmittel mit einem Anteil von über 90 % die bedeutenste PAK-Quelle ( 
+                     Lodovici u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">1995</date> 
+                  ;  
+                     Menzie u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">1992</date> 
+                  ;  
+                     Van Rooij u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">1994</date> 
+                  ). Bei der Aufnahme über die Nahrung werden die PAK über den Gastrointestinaltrakt absorbiert, wobei die Absorption von der Zusammensetzung der verzehrten Nahrung abhängig zu sein scheint.</s>
+                     <s>So wird diskutiert, ob unlösliche Kohlenhydrate die Aufnahme verringern und Fette sie erhöhen (Stavric und Klassen, 
+              <date instant="false">1994</date>).</s>
+                     <s>Ungeachtet der Bioverfügbarkeit liegt die tägliche Aufnahme an PAK über eine durchschnittliche Ernährung verschiedenen Berechnungen zu Folge bei einigen µg, wie in Tab. 1.2 dargestellt ist.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Daten zu aufgenommenen Mengen sind durch die Auswahl der 10 bis 20 quantifizierten PAK-Vertreter limitiert.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Bezüglich der alkPAK zeigen bisher unveröffentlichte Untersuchungen der Arbeitsgruppe Seidel, dass gerade die Monomethylpyrene 1-, 2- und 4-MP in Zigaretten, Grillgut, Motorenölen und auch Umweltproben in ähnlichen Konzentrationen wie BP vorliegen (vgl. Tab. 1.1 und 1.2).</s>
+                     <s>Auch Arbeiten von  
+                     Larsson u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">1983</date>) 
+                   
+                     Guillén und (
+              <date instant="false"/>) Sopelana (2004b)und Guillén und Sopelana (2004a)  
+                      Sopelana  (
+              <date instant="false"> 2004 </date>b) und  
+                      Guillén und Sopelana  (
+              <date instant="false"> 2004 </date>a)  weisen 1-MP in ähnlichen Größenordnungen wie BP in Lebensmitteln nach.</s>
+                     <s>Es kann somit davon ausgegangen werden, dass die humane Belastung mit MP für beruflich nicht exponierte Nichtraucher im Bereich von einigen 100 ng/Tag liegt.</s>
+                     <s>Für Raucher und exponierte Arbeiter könnte sie jedoch noch höher liegen, unter Umständen bishin zu wenigen µg.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Eine umfassende Abschätzung der humanen Exposition gegenüber PAK und insbesondere alkPAK ist aufgrund der enormen strukturellen Komplexität nicht möglich.</s>
+                     <s>Eine Abschätzung der Exposition gegenüber PAK über BP oder eine kleine Gruppe von 10–20 PAK ist eine praktikable Möglichkeit, führt aber nur zu einer Mindestbelastung, die oftmals die alkPAK außer Acht lässt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Zur Klärung substanzspezifischer Fragen sowie der Bioverfügbarkeit können Biomarker von einzelnen Vertretern der PAK gemessen werden.</s>
+                     <s>Oftmals fehlende Korrelationen mit der Expositionsdosis und die technische Beschränkung auf wenige spezifische PAK begrenzen die Anwendung dieser Methoden jedoch.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="1.3" type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>1.3 Metabolismus</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Lipophilie der alkPAK – wie auch die der nicht alkylierten PAK – führt ohne Metabolisierung zu einer Anreicherung im Organismus.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Anreicherung kann beispielsweise bei Muscheln beobachtet werden (Meador u. a., 
+              <date instant="false">1995</date>).</s>
+                     <s>Säugetiere können 
+              <pb n="5"/>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>
+                        <pb n="6"/>jedoch durch die Enzyme des fremdstoffmetabolisierenden Systems die PAK und alk-PAK so funktionalisieren und konjugieren, dass die dadurch erreichte höhere Hydrophilie und strukturelle Veränderung wie z. B. eine negative Ladung eine aktive oder passive Sekrektion und somit die Ausscheidung aus dem Organismus ermöglicht.</s>
+                     <s>Der Fremdstoffmetabolismus untergliedert sich in drei zu betrachtende Phasen: Phase I – Funktionalisierung, Phase II – Konjugation, Phase III – Transport.</s>
+                     <s>Im Folgenden wird auf die Biotransformation von alkPAK, den Transport der Metaboliten und die wichtigsten daran beteiligten Proteine eingegangen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Ein alkPAK bietet für die Biotransformation zwei Angriffsmöglichkeiten: das aromatische Ringsystem und die Alkylgruppe.</s>
+                     <s>Der Metabolismus von aromatischen Ringsystemen ist weitgehend aufgeklärt (Hertel u. a., 
+              <date instant="false">1998</date>).</s>
+                     <s>Für die in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Substanzen sind das Pyren (Abb. 1.2) und das BP zu betrachten.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>In der Phase I des Fremdstoffmetabolismus findet eine durch Cytochrome P450 (CYP) vermittelte Oxidation der aromatischen Ringsysteme zu entsprechenden Epoxiden, Phenolen und Diolen statt.</s>
+                     <s>Die CYP1A1 und 1B1, die über den „aryl hydrocarbon receptor“ (Ah-Rezeptor) auch durch PAK selbst induziert werden können, weisen eine besonders hohe katalytische Aktivität für diese Oxidationen auf.</s>
+                     <s>Als sekundäre Metaboliten der Phase I treten Diole, Diolepoxide, Tetrahydrotetrole und Phenolepoxide auf.</s>
+                     <s>Die Bildung der Diole aus den entsprechenden Epoxiden wird durch Epoxidhydrolase vermittelt.</s>
+                     <s>Diese primären und sekundären Metaboliten der Phase I werden durch Enzyme der Phase II zu Glutathion- (GSH), Glucuronsäure- oder Sulfokonjugaten umgesetzt.</s>
+                     <s>Die somit erreichte Zunahme der Hydrophilie hat eine verbesserte Ausscheidung der Fremdstoffe aus dem Organismus zur Folge.</s>
+                     <s>Eine Ausnahme stellen die Diolepoxide des BP dar.</s>
+                     <s>Diese sind hoch reaktiv und führen zur Bildung von DNA-Addukten, die, wenn sie nicht repariert werden, Mutationen im betroffenen Organismus hervorrufen können.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Zusätzlich zur Transformation des Ringsystems wird bei den alkPAK die Seitenkette durch fremdstoffmetabolisierende Enzyme modifiziert.</s>
+                     <s>In der Phase I findet eine CYP-vermittelte Hydroxylierung der Seitenkette statt.</s>
+                     <s>Der gebildete benzylische Alkohol ist zum einen ein Substrat für die Alkoholdehydrogenasen (ADH) und Aldehyddehydrogenasen (ALDH) , zum anderen kann er durch die konjugierenden Enzyme der Phase II zum Glucuronid oder Sulfat metabolisiert werden.</s>
+                     <s>Bei einer Analyse der Metaboliten der alkPAK tritt eine Vielzahl von Kombinationen aus verschiedenen Metaboliten des Ringsystems und der Seitenkette auf.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Dieser Metabolismus wurde am Beispiel des 1-MP für die Ratte in den Arbeiten von  
+                     Rice u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">1988</date>) 
+                   
+                     Engst u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">1999</date>) 
+                   
+                     Ma (
+              <date instant="false">2001</date>) und  
+                     Ma u. a. (
+              <date instant="false">2000</date>) aufgeklärt und ist in Abb. 1.3 skizziert.</s>
+                     <s>Rice u. a. 
+                   und  
+                     Engst u. a. 
+                   verwendeten für ihre Untersuchungen 1-MP sowie Rattenleberhomogenat von Aroclor-behandelten Tieren bzw. Rattenlebermikrosomen von unbehandelten und 3-Methylcholantren (3-MC) behandelten Tieren.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <pb n="7"/>
+                        <gap instant="false"/>
+                        <pb n="8"/>Die Ergebnisse von  
+                     Ma 
+                   beziehen sich hingegen auf Urin- und Fäzesanalysen von 1-HMPbehandelten Ratten.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                     <s>Als Metaboliten aus den in-vitro-Inkubationen mit 1-MP werden trans-4,5-Dihydrodiol-1-MP, 3-, 6- oder 8-Hydroxy-1-MP bzw. -1-HMP, 1-HMP und 1-Pyrenylcarbonsäure (1-PCS) beschrieben ( 
+                     Engst u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">1999</date> 
+                  ;  
+                     Rice u. a. 
+                     
+              <date instant="false">1988</date> 
+                  ). Diese Metaboliten entstehen durch Aktivitäten von CYP, ADH und ALDH.</s>
+                     <s>Die Aktivitäten konju-gierender Enzyme werden in diesen in-vitro-Inkubationen nicht beobachtet.</s>
+                     <s>Sie finden sich aber in den in-vivo-Ergebnissen von  
+                     Ma (
+              <date instant="false">2001</date>) wieder: Das Metabolitenspektrum in Urin und Fäzes setzt sich aus etwa 30 % phenolischen Schwefelsäureestern der ringhydroxylierten 1-PCS, 1 % phenolischer Schwefelsäureester des ringhydroxylierten 1-HMP, 17 % Glucuronsäurekonjugate der 1-PCS, 1 % (Männchen) bzw. 7 % (Weibchen) Glucuronsäurekonjugat des 1-HMP, 30 % 1-PCS sowie 2 % ringhydroxyliertem 1-HMP und unmetabolisiertem 1-HMP zusammen.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Angaben beziehen sich auf die Gesamtheit der ausgeschiedenen Metaboliten innerhalb von 24 h nach Applikation von 40 µmol/kg KM [ 14 C]1-HMP.</s>
+                     <s>In dieser Zeitspanne werden bei weiblichen Ratten 18 % der applizierten Dosis renal und rund 31 % biliär ausgeschieden, bei männlichen Ratten hingegen 30 % der Dosis renal und 14 % biliär.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div n="1.3.1" type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>1.3.1 Cytochrome P450</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Die benzylische Hydroxylierung als erster Schritt im Fremdstoffmetabolismus der Seitenkette der alkPAK wird durch Enzyme der Superfamilie der CYP katalysiert.</s>
+                        <s>Diese mikrosomalen Häm-Thiolat-Monooxygenasen vermitteln den Einbau eines Sauerstoffs in ihre Substrate unter Bildung von Wasser und Oxidation von NADPH.</s>
+                        <s>Neben der Hydroxylierung von aliphatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen und der bereits beschriebenen Epoxidierung von Aromaten oxidieren CYP noch eine Vielzahl weiterer Substrate (Sono u. a., 
+                <date instant="false">1996</date>).</s>
+                        <s>Das menschliche Genom enthält 18 Familien, unterteilt in 41 Subfamilien mit insgesamt 57 aktiven Genen ( 
+                        Gibbs u. a. 
+                        
+                <date instant="false">2004</date> 
+                     ;  
+                        Guengerich 
+                        
+                <date instant="false">2004</date> 
+                     ). Bei der Ratte liegen noch keine endgültigen Zahlen vor.</s>
+                        <s>Nach Ergebnissen des „Rat Genome Sequencing Project Consortium“ von 2004 hat das Genom der Ratte 18 CYP-Familien gegliedert in 44 Subfamilien mit insgesamt 84 aktiven Genen (Gibbs u. a., 2004).</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
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+               <title>LNA/KMO.00003 Müller, Markus; Szabó, Tobias; Kretzschmar, Frank: Optimierung eines Reaktorsicherheitsbehältermodells zur genaueren Strömungssimulation. - Karlsruhe, 2013 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Müller, Markus; Szabó, Tobias; Kretzschmar, Frank</author>
+                  <title>Optimierung eines Reaktorsicherheitsbehältermodells zur genaueren Strömungssimulation</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Karlsruhe</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>KIT Scientific Publishing</publisher>
+                  <date when="2013">2013</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
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+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>3 Stand der Technik</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In diesem Kapitel werden verschiedene Nodalisierungsansätze aus der Literaturvorgestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Diese bilden die Grundlage für die Vorgehensweise in dieser Arbeit.</s>
+                  <s>Neben der üblichen Nodalisierung für Integralrechnungen mit Lumped-Parameter-Codes werden auch die Ansätze zur genaueren Berechnung der Gasverteilung und zur Berücksichtigung von Aufwärtsströmungen erläutert.</s>
+                  <s>Abschließend wird eine Übersicht zu Erfahrungen mit Formverlustbeiwerten gegeben.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>3.1 Nodalisierung für Integralrechnungen mit Lumped-Parameter-Codes</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Für Integralrechnungen wird ein Sicherheitsbehälter in MELCOR in der Regel mit 30 – 40 Kontrollvolumen modelliert ( 
+                     Gauntt et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[12]</ref> 
+                  ). Mehrere kleine Räume werden üblicherweise zusammengefasst oder größeren Räumen zugeschlagen.</s>
+                  <s>Horizontale Verfeinerung, d.h. mehr Kontrollvolumen innerhalb einer horizontalen Ebene, begünstigt eine Durchmischung der Fluide.</s>
+                  <s>Diese geben aber laut  
+                     Burkhardt et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[13]</ref> 
+                   meist keine zusätzlichen Erkenntnisse über die thermohydraulischen Vorgänge, da sich Zustandsgrößen auf einer Höhe meist relativ schnell ausgleichen.</s>
+                  <s>Sie geben aber genauere Informationen über die Verteilung von Wasserstoff oder der thermohydraulischen Parameter.</s>
+                  <s>Die vertikale Verfeinerung, d.h. mehr Kontrollvolumen übereinander, sollte deshalb Schwerpunkt bei der Verbesserung einer Nodalisierung sein.</s>
+                  <s>Man muss sicherstellen, dass relevante Strömungspfade durch die Lumped-Parameter-Nodalisierung berücksichtigt werden und realistische Ergebnisse berechnet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Aus diesem Grund ist nach  
+                     Duspiva 
+                     
+              <ref>[14]</ref> 
+                   eine Verifizierung durch eine CFD-Rechnung unabdingbar.</s>
+                  <s>Der Benutzer und dessen Erfahrung haben hierbei den größten Einfluss auf das Ergebnis.</s>
+                  <s>Bei einfachen Problemen gilt, dass eine genauere Diskretisierung, in vertikaler ( 
+                     Schwarz et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[15]</ref> 
+                  )sowie horizontaler Richtung, detailliertere Gradienten und damit lokal genauere Ergebnisse liefert ( 
+                     Burkhardt et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[16]</ref> 
+                  ). 
+              <pb n="16"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>3.2 Nodalisierung zur genaueren Auflösung von Gaskonzentrationen und Gasschichtungen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Für die Berechnung von Gasschichtungen ist eine vertikale Verfeinerung notwendig, da ohne diese keine Konzentrationsgradienten erkennbar sind.</s>
+                  <s>Bereiche, in denen solche Schichten erfahrungsgemäß vorhanden sind, sollten deshalb nach  
+                     Burkhardt et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[13]</ref> 
+                   und  
+                     Fischer 
+                     
+              <ref>[17]</ref> 
+                   vertikal detaillierter nodalisiert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Zur genaueren Bestimmung von Gaskonzentrationen wird eine detailliertere Nodalisierung vorgeschlagen ( 
+                     Fischer 
+                     
+              <ref>[17]</ref> 
+                  ,  
+                     Duspiva 
+                     
+              <ref>[14]</ref> 
+                  ).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>3.3 Nodalisierung zur Auflösung von Aufwärtsströmungen</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Aufwärtsströmungen kommen bei Sicherheitsbehältern im Falle eines Störfalls vor allem im Kuppelbereich oberhalb der Dampferzeugertürme über den Berstscheiben vor.</s>
+                  <s>Diese sind auftriebsgetrieben und haben die Form eines Freistrahls (Jet).</s>
+                  <s>Solche Strömungen können nur durch ausreichend viele Ebenen in vertikaler Richtung simuliert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Um mit Lumped Parameter Codes solche Strömungen darstellen zu können, muss mit zentralen Zonen oder einer kegelförmigen Nodalisierung mit Jet-Zonen gearbeitet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Die Jet-Zonen bestehen aus zusätzlichen Kontrollvolumina und Flow-Paths.</s>
+                  <s>Sie bestimmen laut  
+                     Broxtermann et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[18]</ref> 
+                   maßgeblich die Form der Gas- oder Dampfausbreitung.</s>
+                  <s>Nur mit ihrer Hilfe können bei einer Lumped-Parameter-Nodalisierung starke nach oben gerichtete Strömungen nachgebildet werden, andernfalls werden sie nichtberücksichtigt ( 
+                      Burkhardt et al.  
+                     
+              <ref> [19] </ref> 
+                  ,  
+                      GRS  
+                     
+              <ref> [20] </ref> 
+                  ,  
+                      Allelein et al.  
+                     
+              <ref> [21] </ref> 
+                  ). Um ein Mitreißen von Atmosphäre umliegender Kontrollvolumina nachzubilden, können gemäß  
+                     Burkhardt et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[13]</ref> 
+                   Gebläse in die Simulation integriert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Gebläse sind nach oben gerichtet und zwingen Gas aus Nachbarvolumina in die Jet-Zonen zu einer Aufwärtsströmung, die von selbst nicht berechnet werden würde.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>3.4 Erfahrungen zu Formverlustbeiwerten</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Über genaue Formverlustbeiwerte mit denen in Lumped Parameter Codes Strömungsverluste innerhalb eines Kontrollvolumens simuliert werden können, ist bisher noch wenig bekannt.</s>
+                  <s>Die GRS verwendet in  
+                     
+              <ref>[20]</ref> 
+                   für den Code COCOSYS Formverlustbeiwerte die zwischen 0,3 und 2,8 variieren, wobei angegeben wird, dass dies fiktive Werte sind, die aber zur Stabilität der Strömung beitragen.</s>
+                  <s>Nach  
+                     Bradley et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[22]</ref> 
+                   ist vollkommen unklar, wie ein äquivalenter Druckverlustbeiwert für FL zwischen CV, die mehrere Räume repräsentieren, bestimmt 
+              <pb n="17"/>werden soll.</s>
+                  <s>Dafür sei keine Methodik verfügbar.</s>
+                  <s>In der dortigen Arbeit wurde ein Druckverlustbeiwert von 2 angenommen.</s>
+                  <s>Auch das Forschungszentrum Jülich verwendet Formverlustbeiwerte zwischen 1 und 5 zur Simulation in einem generischen Sicherheitsbehälter ( 
+                     Allelein et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[23]</ref> 
+                  ). Nach  
+                     Szabó et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[4]</ref> 
+                   liefern die realistischen Formverlustbeiwerte für die Durchströmung bestimmter Geometrien zwischen 0 – 0.54 mit MELCOR nur ungenügende Ergebnisse.</s>
+                  <s>Am KIT wird deshalb mit einem Formverlustbeiwert von 4 gerechnet.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Wert ist gängig für MELCOR-Nodalisierungen von DWR-Sicherheitsbehältern.</s>
+                  <s>Er wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit standardmäßig für alle FL verwendet.</s>
+                  <s>Anstatt eine Anpassung an den Formverlustbeiwerten durchzuführen, können auch die Durchmesser der FL verringert werden um die Strömung künstlich zu verlangsamen.</s>
+                  <s>Karwat 
+                     
+              <ref>[24]</ref> 
+                   bemängelt diese Vorgehensweise und die Tatsache, dass häufig Formverlustbewerte weit ab der Realität verwendet werden, ohne diese wissenschaftlich rechtfertigen zu können.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="18"/>
+                     <pb n="19"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>4 Nodalisierung eines generischen Sicherheitsbehälters</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Am KIT ist ein Geometriemodell eines vereinfachten generischen Sicherheitsbehälters erstellt worden.</s>
+                  <s>Von diesem wurde ein GASFLOW Rechengitter erstellt ( 
+                  Jordan et al. 
+                  
+            <ref>[5]</ref> 
+               )und eine grobe MELCOR–Nodalisierung, die typisch für Integralrechnungen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Die von GASFLOW und MELCOR berechnete Thermohydraulik im generischen SB wurde verglichen ( 
+                  Szabó et al. 
+                  
+            <ref>[4]</ref> 
+               ). Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde diese grobe MELCOR-Nodalisierung in mehreren Schritten verfeinert.</s>
+                  <s>In diesem Kapitel werden diese verfeinerten Nodalisierungen vorgestellt und ihr Einfluss auf das Ergebnis gezeigt und beurteilt.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Validierung wird die genauere CFD Rechnung mit GASFLOW als Referenz herangezogen.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Code ist durch das erfolgreiche Nachrechnen vieler Experimente validiert worden ( 
+                  Travis et al. 
+                  
+            <ref>[11]</ref> 
+               )und lieferte beispielsweise beim internationalen Standard Problem 47 ( 
+                  Fischer et al. 
+                  
+            <ref>[25]</ref> 
+               )realistische Ergebnisse.</s>
+                  <s>Die GASFLOW-Rechenergebnisse sind darum als Referenzwerte geeignet.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>4.1 Generischer Sicherheitsbehälter</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb n="20"/>Nach  
+                     Jordan et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[5]</ref> 
+                   ist die Basis für diesen generischen Sicherheitsbehälter ist ein 1 300 MW DWR deutscher Bauart.</s>
+                  <s>Er besteht aus zwei Räumen.</s>
+                  <s>Innen befindet sich der Komponentenraum mit Bauteilen wie dem Reaktordruckbehälter, den Dampferzeugern, Pumpen und dem Druckhalter.</s>
+                  <s>Außen befindet sich der Betriebsraum.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser ist durch ca. 1 m dicke Betonwände vom Komponentenraum abgetrennt.</s>
+                  <s>Bei realen Anlagen lässt sich dieser Raum während des Betriebs betreten.</s>
+                  <s>Beide Räume sind durch Berstscheiben in der Oberseite beider Dampferzeugertürme und im unteren Bereich des Trümmerschutzzylinders verbunden.</s>
+                  <s>Diese können sich im Störfall durch eine Druckdifferenz zwischen beiden Räumen öffnen.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu kann es im Fall eines Lecks durch das ausströmende Kühlwasser kommen.</s>
+                  <s>Position des Lecks ist in Abb. 4.1 zu erkennen.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/> In Abb. 4.2 ist ein typischer Quellterm für einen schweren Störfall, der bei einem kleinen Leck im Primärkreis und dem gleichzeitigen Ausfall vieler Sicherheitssysteme resultiert, dargestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Massenströme von Wasser, Wasserdampf und Wasserstoff sind für den Zeitraum der kompletten Störfallberechnung von 0 s bis 17 000 s aufgetragen.</s>
+                  <s>Zwischen 14 000 s und 15 500 s wird der pessimistische Fall einer trockenen Wasserstoffquelle (nur ca. 10 % Dampf) angenommen.</s>
+                  <s>Im Anschluss wird die Thermohydraulik bis 17 000 s weitergerechnet ( 
+                     Szabó et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[4]</ref> 
+                  ). 
+              <pb n="21"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>4.2 Typische, sehr grobe Nodalisierung</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Von  
+                     Szabó et al 
+                     
+              <ref>[3]</ref> 
+                   wurde für MELCOR der generische Sicherheitsbehälter mit einer einfachen Nodalisierung modelliert (siehe Abb. 4.3 und Abb. 4.4).</s>
+                  <s>Diese ist typisch für Nodalisierungen, die bei MELCOR-Integralrechnungen verwendet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Die Flächen mit der Nummerierung von 1 bis 37 stehen jeweils für ein CV.</s>
+                  <s>Die HS sind durch eine rote Linie oder eine rote Nummer gekennzeichnet.</s>
+                  <s>Die Pfeile stellen jeweils einen FL dar.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb n="22"/>7 
+              <gap instant="false"/> Einbauten im Komponentenraum werden nur insofern berücksichtigt, dass ihr Volumen in den entsprechenden Kontrollvolumen abgezogen wird.</s>
+                  <s>Die Quelle befindet sich homogen verteilt in Kontrollvolumen 5 (gekennzeichnet durch ein Symbol).</s>
+                  <s>In dieser groben Nodalisierung ist diese nicht genauer zu positionieren.</s>
+                  <s>Betrachtet man die Ergebnisse der GASFLOW- und MELCOR-Rechnung, so sind wegen der unterschiedlichen Berechnungsarten (siehe Kapitel 2.5) und der sehr groben Nodalisierung in MELCOR deutliche Unterschiede festzustellen.</s>
+                  <s>Diagramm 1 zeigt die Masse an Wasserstoff im Komponentenraum für MELCOR (blau) und GASFLOW (grün).</s>
+                  <s>Diagramm 2 zeigt selbiges für den äußeren Betriebsraum.</s>
+                  <s>Wie in diesen beiden Diagrammen zu erkennen ist, unterschätzt MELCOR die Masse an Wasserstoff, welche im Komponentenraum bleibt, deutlich im Vergleich zu GASFLOW.</s>
+                  <s>Im Gegenzug gelangt mehr Wasserstoff in den Betriebsraum.</s>
+                  <s>Laut  
+                     Szabó et al. 
+                     
+              <ref>[4]</ref> 
+                   ist dafür eine Überschätzung des 
+              <pb n="23"/>Kamineffekts und eine Unterschätzung der Strömung innerhalb des Komponentenraums verantwortlich.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/> Diagramm 3 zeigt die Wasserstoffkonzentration im Komponentenraum entfernt von der Quelle in CV 6, wobei der Volumenanteil über der Zeit aufgetragen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Die Werte in MELCOR (blau) liegen deutlich unter einem lokalen Wert in diesem Raumbereich aus GASFLOW.</s>
+                  <s>Demnach wird der Transport von Wasserstoff innerhalb des Komponentenraums von MELCOR deutlich unterschätzt.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings wurde mit MELCOR die Konzentration im Bereich der Kuppel (CV 24) relativ genau berechnet, wie in Diagramm 4 zu sehen ist, welches identisch wie Diagramm 3 aufgebaut ist.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/> Diagramm 5 zeigt den Massenstrom durch die Berstscheiben im linken Turm 1, im rechten Turm 2 (vgl. Abb. 4.3) und durch die unteren Berstscheiben im Trümmerschutzzylinder im zeitlichen Verlauf.</s>
+                  <s>Positiven Werte bedeuten Strömung aus dem inneren Komponentenraum 
+              <pb n="24"/>in den äußeren Betriebsraum.</s>
+                  <s>Die positiven Werte in den Türmen (Ausströmung), und negativen Werte im Trümmerschutzzylinder (Einströmung) lassen in MELCOR auf den Kamineffekt schließen.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser ist auch in GASFLOW zu beobachten, allerdings ist dieser dort deutlich schwächer und zeitweise findet dort eine Umkehrung der Strömung statt.</s>
+                  <s>Insgesamt ist in MELCOR eine deutlich stärkere Strömung zu beachten.</s>
+                  <s>Die Strömung durch den quellfernen Turm 1 und den quellnahen Turm 2 ist in der GASFLOW-Rechnung meist ähnlich stark, wohingegen in der MELCOR-Rechnung durch die quellfernen Berstscheiben in Turm 1 immer deutlich weniger Masse strömt.</s>
+                  <s>Hier zeigt sich, dass die Durchströmung des Komponentenraums von der Quelle bis zum quellfernen Dampferzeugerturm 1 in MELCOR unterschätzt wird.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/> In Diagramm 6 ist der Druck über der Zeit abgebildet.</s>
+                  <s>Die Ergebnisse der MELCOR–Rechnung (blaue Kurve) sind meist etwas höher als bei GASFLOW (grüne Kurve).</s>
+                  <s>Insgesamt stimmen die Drücke relativ gut überein.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb n="25"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>4.3 Grobe, vertikale Nodalisierung</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im ersten Schritt wird die existierende Nodalisierung vertikal verfeinert.</s>
+                  <s>Jedes Kontrollvolumen im Komponentenraum und jedes im Betriebsraum im oberen Bereich 1 (siehe Abbildung 4.5) wird vertikal unterteilt.</s>
+                  <s>Eine weitere Unterteilung im inneren (Bereich 2) Raum soll zu einer besseren Durchmischung führen.</s>
+                  <s>Im äußeren Raum (Bereich 1) ist die bessere Darstellung der Gaskonzentration Ziel dieser Nodalisierung, sodass die Gasschichtung und damit eine eventuelle Stratifikation genauer aufgelöst werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/> Die Schnitte durch die Kontrollvolumina wurden so gewählt, dass sie mit den Zellen in GASFLOW übereinstimmen.</s>
+                  <s>Dadurch lassen sich lokale Sensoren in GASFLOW, an denen Strömungsparameter ausgewertet werden, den entsprechenden MELCOR-CV zuordnen.</s>
+                  <s>Insgesamt wurden 17 neue CV, 29 neue FL und 10 HS hinzugefügt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>4.3.1 Rechenergebnisse und Diskussion </s>
+               </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LNA.KFC.00004">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LNA/KFC.00004 Kemter, Franziska Sophia: Charakterisierung der DNA-Replikation beider Chromosomen von Vibrio cholerae durch Methoden der Genomik und synthetischen Biologie. - Marburg, 2018 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Kemter, Franziska Sophia</author>
+                  <title>Charakterisierung der DNA-Replikation beider Chromosomen von Vibrio cholerae durch Methoden der Genomik und synthetischen Biologie</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Marburg</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Philipps-Universität Marburg</publisher>
+                  <date when="2018">2018</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
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+                  <sex>F</sex>
+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
+               </person>
+            </particDesc>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="subsection">
+               <head>6.1.2 Die Regulation der Initiation der DNA-Replikation an ori2 in E. coli</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Um 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> außerhalb seines nativen Kontextes zu untersuchen oder synthetische sekundäre Chromosomen zu generieren, kann 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> auch als Replikationsursprung von Replikons in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> eingebracht werden.</s>
+                  <s>In 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> kann ein 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basiertes Replikon wie synVicII auch ohne 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> replizieren, während die Deletion der 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> zu Mutationen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">rctB</hi> oder 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> oder zu Chromosomenfusionen führt (( 
+                  Val et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2016</date> 
+               ); Kapitel 5.3).</s>
+                  <s>Die Integration einer 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> in das -Chromosom erhöht die Kopienanzahl eines 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Minichromosoms relativ zu von 0,31 ± 0,02 auf 0,82 ± 0,13 (Kapitel 5.4).</s>
+                  <s>Demnach hat die 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> ebenfalls einen Einfluss auf die Initiation der DNA-Replikation an 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Warum ist die 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> mit 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Replikons im Gegensatz zu 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> nicht essentiell?</s>
+                  <s>Dies kann verschiedene Ursachen haben.</s>
+                  <s>Zum einen könnte es in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> einen zusätzlichen negativen Regulator der Initiation der DNA-Replikation an 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> geben, welcher bei den bisher konstruierten 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Minichromosomen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> fehlt.</s>
+                  <s>Zum anderen könnte ein in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> nicht vorhandener Faktor in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> die fehlende 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> ganz oder teilweise komplementieren.</s>
+                  <s>Mögliche negative Regulatoren in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> wären verschiedene RctB-Bindestellen auf Chr2 außerhalb von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>, für die bereits eine Inhibierung der Replikation 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>-basierter Minichromosomen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> sowie ein negativer Effekt auf die Kopienanzahl von ori2 in V. cholerae gezeigt werden konnte ( 
+                  Baek and Chattoraj 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2014</date> 
+               ). Interessant wäre, ob eine auf dem E. coli-Chromosom integrierte crtS den negativen Effekt solcher RctB-Bindestellen auf einem 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Minichromosom ausgleichen könnte, oder ob die Deletion dieser Bindestellen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> die Deletion der 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> ermöglicht.</s>
+                  <s>Um weitere negative Regulatoren der Initiation an 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> zu finden, könnten Transposon-Mutagenese-Experimente durchgeführt und nach Mutanten mit erhöhter Kopienanzahl von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> gesucht oder weitere Stämme untersucht werden, welche eine Deletion der durch eine Mutation kompensieren konnten.</s>
+                  <s>Bislang zeigten letztere Stämme jedoch nur Chromosomenfusionen oder Mutationen in rctB und in dessen Expressionsregulation ( 
+                  Val et al.  
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2016</date> 
+               ;  
+                  Ramachandran et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2018</date> 
+               ). Als positiver Regulator der Initiation an ori2 in E. coli wurden bereits die Chaperone DnaK und DnaJ (DnaKJ) gefunden, welche für die Replikation von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Minichromosomen ohne crtS essentiell sind ( 
+                  Jha, Demarre, et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2012</date> 
+               ). Die Integration 
+            <pb n="46"/>einer 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> kann die Deletion von 
+            <hi rend="italic">dnaKJ</hi> komplementieren, beide Faktoren scheinen jedoch nicht denselben Wirkmechanismus zu haben ( 
+                  Baek and Chattoraj 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2014</date> 
+               ;  
+                  Ramachandran et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2018</date> 
+               ). DnaKJ fördern die Monomerisierung von RctB und dessen Bindung an 12- und 39-mere in 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> sowie an die 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> durch eine Ummodellierung von RctB ( 
+                  Jha et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2017</date> 
+               ;  
+                  de Lemos Martins et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2018</date> 
+               ). Zudem scheinen DnaKJ die Oligomerisierung von spezifisch gebundenem RctB auf der DNA in V. cholerae zu verstärken ( 
+                  de Lemos Martins et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2018</date> 
+               ). Im Gegensatz zu 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> sind die Chaperone DnaKJ in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> essentiell ( 
+                  Chao et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2013</date> 
+               ). Dies scheint auch für den monochromosomalen V. cholerae-Stamm MCH1 zu gelten ( 
+                  Bruhn et al. 
+               , unveröffentlichte Daten).</s>
+                  <s>Letzteres lässt vermuten, dass DnaKJ auch für andere Abläufe in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> außerhalb der Initiation der DNA-Replikation essentiell sind, schließt jedoch eine Abhängigkeit der 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten DNA-Replikation von DnaKJ wie in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> nicht aus.</s>
+                  <s>Somit scheint die Ummodellierung von RctB durch DnaKJ ein weiterer Mechanismus der Regulation der 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten DNA-Replikation zu sein, der in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> durch einen zusätzlichen positiven oder fehlenden negativen Regulator teilweise ausgeglichen werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>Ein positiver Regulator der Initiation der DNA-Replikation an 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> kann auf verschiedene Arten wirken.</s>
+                  <s>Beispielsweise könnte er 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> direkt beeinflussen oder mit RctB interagieren.</s>
+                  <s>Möglich wäre ebenfalls eine indirekte Regulation über Signalmoleküle oder zusätzliche Proteine.</s>
+                  <s>Um einen weiteren Interaktionspartner von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> zu finden, wäre, wie bereits in Kapitel 6.1.1 beschrieben, eine Methode zur Isolation und Identifizierung spezifischer DNA-Sequenzen und aller an sie gebundener Proteine,
+            <hi rend="italic">in vivo</hi> oder 
+            <hi rend="italic">in vitro</hi>, gut geeignet.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Identifikation von unbekannten Interaktionspartnern von RctB in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> böte sich eine Methode zur Untersuchung von Protein-Protein-Interaktionen wie ein herkömmlicher Pulldown-Assay oder bakterieller Two-Hybrid an ( 
+                  Datta et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2015</date> 
+               ;  
+                  Joung et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2000</date> 
+               ).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head>
+                  <s>6.2 Systeme zur Untersuchung der DNA-Replikation von V. cholerae im Vergleich</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Es gibt verschiedenste Methoden zur Untersuchung der DNA-Replikation in Bakterien.</s>
+                  <s>Die Aufteilung des Genoms von 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> auf zwei Chromosomen stellt jedoch für die Anwendung einiger dieser Methoden eine Herausforderung dar.</s>
+                  <s>Wie kann die DNA-Replikation in einem Bakterium mit zwei Chromosomen analysiert werden?</s>
+                  <s>In dieser Arbeit wurden je nach Fragestellung vier verschiedene Systeme zur Untersuchung der DNA-Replikation von 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae V. cholerae</hi>verwendet: Bichromosomale und monochromosomale 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> sowie 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> mit einem Replikationsursprung von 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> auf dem Haupt- oder einem Minichromosom (Abbildung 6.1).</s>
+                  <s>Normalerweise verfügt 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> über zwei Chromosomen unterschiedlicher Größe 
+            <pb n="47"/>(Abbildung 6.1A).</s>
+                  <s>Es gibt jedoch besondere Ausnahmen, bei denen beide Chromosomen zu einem fusioniert vorliegen (Abbildung 6.1B).</s>
+                  <s>Diese Fusion kann entweder natürlich stattfinden oder konstruiert werden und unter Erhalt oder Deletion von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> erfolgen ( 
+                  Xie et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2017</date> 
+               ; Val et al. 2012).</s>
+                  <s>Da 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> in Gegenwart von RctB auch in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> funktionsfähig ist, kann 
+            <hi rend="italic">oriC</hi> durch 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> ausgetauscht werden, um ein 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basiertes monochromosomales Genom in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> zu erhalten (Abbildung 6.1C).</s>
+                  <s>Weiterhin kann 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> als Basis für Minichromosomen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> dienen (Abbildung 6.1D), welche ein weitverbreitetes System zur Untersuchung von Replikationsursprüngen darstellen.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="bold">Abbildung 6.1: Verschiedene Systeme zur Untersuchung der DNA-Replikation in V. cholerae</hi>
+                     <hi rend="bold">.</hi>
+                  </s>
+                  <hi rend="bold"> </hi>
+                  <s>(
+            <hi rend="bold">A</hi>)
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> mit zwei Chromosomen jeweils unter der Kontrolle von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori1</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>(
+            <hi rend="bold">B</hi>)
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> mit einem fusionierten Chromosom unter der Kontrolle von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori1</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>(
+            <hi rend="bold">C</hi>)
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> mit einem Austausch von 
+            <hi rend="italic">oriC</hi> durch 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>(
+            <hi rend="bold">D</hi>)
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> mit einem 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Minichromosom.</s>
+                  <s>Chromosomen sind durch Ellipsen dargestellt, Replikationsursprünge durch gelb gefüllte Kreise.</s>
+                  <s>Chr1 und 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori1</hi> sind blau markiert, Chr2 und rot, das Chromosom von
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">oriC</hi> schwarz.</s>
+                  <s>Minichromosom-DNA ist grau dargestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Welches System ist nun für welche Fragestellung sinnvoll?</s>
+                  <s>Bei globalen Fragen zur DNA-Replikation in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi>, welche keine für die DNA-Replikation kritischen Mutationen erfordern, sind bichromosomale 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> das System der Wahl.</s>
+                  <s>So wurde in dieser Arbeit beispielsweise der Effekt der Stringent Response auf die DNA-Replikation in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> mit dem bichromosomalen Stamm A1552 untersucht (Kapitel 5.2).</s>
+                  <s>Die Zunahme des DNA-Gehalts durch die DNA-Replikation während der SR konnte mittels Durchflusszytometrie gezeigt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Da 
+            <pb n="48"/>jedoch in den so erhaltenen DNA-Histogrammen nicht zwischen Chr1 und Chr2 unterschieden werden kann, war für die Einzelanalyse der DNA-Replikation beider Chromosomen eine Markerfrequenzanalyse notwendig.</s>
+                  <s>Ein weiteres Beispiel für die Verwendung von bichromosomalen 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> bzw. Vibrionaceae ist die Untersuchung der Frage, ob die Terminationssynchronie in den Vibrionaceae konserviert ist (Kapitel 5.1).</s>
+                  <s>Für diese Untersuchung mittels MFA eigen sich nur bichromosomale Vibrionaceae, da die Aufteilung des Genoms auf zwei Chromosomen hier ein essentieller Bestandteil der Fragestellung ist.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Deletion von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>, beispielsweise zur Beantwortung der Frage, ob die DNA-Replikation während der SR von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> abhängt (Kapitel 5.2), ist mit bichromosomalen 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> nicht möglich.</s>
+                  <s>Da die Replikation von Chr2 von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> abhängt, und Verlust von Chr2 zum Tod der Zelle führt, ist eine solche Deletion in bichromosomalen V. cholerae letal ( 
+                  Yamaichi, Fogel, and Waldor 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2007</date> 
+               ). Möglich ist sie jedoch in monochromosomalen V. cholerae wie MCH1, da hier das gesamte Genom von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori1</hi> aus repliziert werden kann ( 
+                  Val et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2012</date> 
+               ). Auch Untersuchungen zur Funktion und Regulation von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>, welche einen Funktionsverlust von zur Folge haben könnten, sind aus den soeben beschriebenen Gründen mit bichromosomalen nicht möglich.</s>
+                  <s>Hier können wieder monochromosomale 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> eingesetzt werden.</s>
+                  <s>So konnte untersucht werden, ob eine Initiation der DNA-Replikation an 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> stattfindet, wenn die Kopienanzahl der 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> unter der von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> liegt (Kapitel 5.5).</s>
+                  <s>Wenn nur einzelne Bereiche von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> oder einzelne Regulatoren analysiert werden sollen, ist die Verwendung von basierten Minichromosomen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> sinnvoll.</s>
+                  <s>Diese sind einfach zu konstruieren und ihre Funktionsfähigkeit lässt sich durch ihre Transformierbarkeit in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> bestimmen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Kopienanzahl von Minichromosomen verschiedener 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi>-Stämme lässt sich durch einen einfachen Wachstumstest vergleichen (Kapitel 5.3).</s>
+                  <s>Mittels 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>-basierter Minichromosomen konnte untersucht werden, welche Auswirkungen Manipulationen der essentiellen DnaA-Box in 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> auf die Funktionsfähigkeit von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> haben (Kapitel 5.4).</s>
+                  <s>Außerdem konnte durch die Erhöhung der Kopienanzahl von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten Minichromosomen durch Anwesenheit der 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> in sowohl die Funktionsfähigkeit der 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> als auch die Kompatibilität von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">crtS</hi> verschiedener Vibrionaceae analysiert werden (Kapitel 5.1, 5.4, 5.5).</s>
+                  <s>Untersuchungen von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> ohne Anwesenheit eines anderen Replikationsursprungs, beispielsweise zur Abhängigkeit von 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> von Dam, SeqA oder DnaA, sind nur in 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi> Stämmen möglich, bei denen 
+            <hi rend="italic">oriC</hi> durch 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> ausgetauscht wurde (Kapitel 5.4).</s>
+                  <s>Die Konstruktion eines monochromosomalen 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi>basierten 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi>-Stamms ohne Mutationen in 
+            <hi rend="italic">rctB</hi> ist nicht möglich, da die Initiation der DNA-Replikation an 
+            <hi rend="italic">ori2</hi> in 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi> von der Verdopplung der abhängt.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="49"/>Die vier beschriebenen Systeme können nicht nur in der Untersuchung der DNA-Replikation von 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi>, sondern auch in der Untersuchung aller anderen 
+            <hi rend="italic">chromosome maintenance</hi> -Systeme wie beispielsweise Segregation der Chromosomen, DNA-Reparaturmechanismen, oder Chromosomenfaltung zur Anwendung kommen.</s>
+                  <s>Ein weiteres hierfür geeignetes System sind synthetische Chromosomen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Chromosomen sind künstlich hergestellt und können sowohl aus vorgefertigten DNA-Bausteinen assembliert als auch aus natürlichen Chromosomen editiert werden ( 
+                  Gibson et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2010</date> 
+               ;  
+                  Lajoie et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2013</date> 
+               ). Durch die sinkenden Kosten der DNA-Synthese und verschiedener neuer Methoden der DNA-Assemblierung wie beispielsweise Gibson-Assembly ( 
+                  Gibson et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2009</date> 
+               ), homologe Rekombination in Hefe (Gibson 2009) oder MoClo ( 
+                  Weber et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2011</date> 
+               ;  
+                  Werner et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2012</date> 
+               ), wird die Neusynthese eines Chromosoms im Vergleich zur Editierung eines bestehenden Chromosoms immer attraktiver ( 
+                  Schindler and Waldminghaus  
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2015</date> 
+               ). Eine Verbindung beider Ansätze ist der schrittweise Austausch chromosomaler Bereiche durch neusynthetisierte Abschnitte ( 
+                  Annaluru et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2014</date> 
+               ;  
+                  Hutchison et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2016</date> 
+               ; Ostrov et al. 2016).</s>
+                  <s>Das Überleben einer Zelle, welche allein auf einem primären synthetischen Chromosom basiert, ist unter anderem von diesem Chromosom und somit von der Funktionsfähigkeit aller seiner essentiellen Bestandteile abhängig.</s>
+                  <s>Die Verwendung eines sekundären synthetischen Chromosoms, zusätzlich zum nativen primären Chromosom, mildert die Abhängigkeit der Zelle vom synthetischen Chromosom.</s>
+                  <s>Getreu dem in der synthetischen Biologie beliebten Zitat 
+            <quote>
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">„What I cannot create, I do not understand“</foreign>
+                     </quote> ( 
+                  Richard Feynman 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">1988</date> 
+               )kann die Konstruktion synthetischer Chromosomen zur Überprüfung und Gewinnung von Wissen über Aufbau und Funktion von Chromosomen und chromosome maintenance-Systemen genutzt werden ( 
+                  Schindler and Waldminghaus 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2015</date> 
+               ). Aus der Untersuchung synthetischer Chromosomen gewonnene Erkenntnisse können zu ihrer Weiterentwicklung verwendet werden, beispielsweise zur Erzeugung eines synthetischen minimalen Chromosoms ( 
+                  Hutchison et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2016</date> 
+               ). Synthetische Chromosomen gewähren maximale Designfreiheit, was Verwendung und Anordnung von Genen oder DNA-Motiven angeht, vorausgesetzt, die Funktionsfähigkeit des Chromosoms bleibt erhalten.</s>
+                  <s>Somit sind für eine Untersuchung verschiedenster 
+            <hi rend="italic">chromosome maintenance</hi> -Systeme durch die Verwendung synthetischer Chromosomen Manipulation in einer Menge möglich, die mit herkömmlichen Methoden nicht oder nur sehr schwer zu erreichen sind.</s>
+                  <s>Dies betrifft unter anderem die Deletion, Insertion, Mutation oder Neuanordnung von Genen und Genbestandteilen, DNA-Bindestellen und anderen DNA-Sequenzen in großem Maßstab.</s>
+                  <s>Ein Beispiel hierfür ist die Generierung eines 
+            <hi rend="italic">E. coli</hi>-Stammes mit nur 57 anstatt 64 Codons ( 
+                  Ostrov et al. 
+                  
+            <date instant="false">2016</date> 
+               ). Ein weiteres Beispiel ist die Untersuchung des Einflusses der Verteilung von GATC-Sequenzen in nichtcodierenden Regionen auf einem synthetischen Chromosom auf die Bindung des 
+            <pb n="50"/>Sequestrators SeqA und des Reparaturproteins MutH und somit auf die Mutationsrate dieses Chromosoms ( 
+                  Schindler et al 
+               , in Vorbereitung).</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head>
+                  <s>6.3 Fazit</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Gegensatz zur Replikation von nur einem Chromosom erfordert die Replikation zweier verschiedener Chromosomen in Bakterien, wie im bichromosomalen 
+            <hi rend="italic">V. cholerae</hi>, ein großes Maß an Koordination zweier Regulationssysteme.</s>
+                  <s>Einblicke in diese beiden Regulationssysteme und ihrer Koordination leisten einen wichtigen Beitrag zum allgemeinen Verständnis der Regulation der DNA-Replikation in Bakterien.</s>
+                  <s>In der Umkehrung des bekannten Zitats von Richard Feynman zu 
+            <quote>
+                        <foreign xml:lang="en">„What I do not understand, I cannot create“</foreign>
+                     </quote> ist dieses Verständnis der Schlüssel zur Entwicklung und Konstruktion synthetischer primärer und sekundärer Chromosomen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LNA.PHK.00005">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LNA/PSK.00005 Pfundheller, Hans-Peter &amp; Söchting, Saskia: Keimverhalten und Bekämpfung tropanalkaloidhaltiger Unkräuter. - Braunschweig, 2018 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Söchting, Hans-Peter; Pfundheller, Saskia</author>
+                  <title>Keimverhalten und Bekämpfung tropanalkaloidhaltiger Unkräuter</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Braunschweig</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Julius Kühn-Institut Julius Kühn-Institut</publisher>
+                  <date when="2018">2018</date>
+                  <biblScope from="477" to="484" unit="page">477-484</biblScope>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Natural_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>Zusammenfassung</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Tropanalkaloidhaltige Unkräuter können bei diversen Kulturen zur Verunreinigung des Erntegutes führen und sollten nicht geduldet werden.</s>
+                  <s>Um Erfahrungen mit diesen Unkrautarten zu sammeln wurden am JKI in Braunschweig im Frühjahr 2017 Untersuchungen zur Keimungsbiologie und Bekämpfung einiger tropanalkaloidhaltiger Arten durchgeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Das für die Versuche verwendete Saatgut stammte aus eigener Vermehrung aus dem Jahr 2016.</s>
+                  <s>Es wurde das Keimverhalten der Arten 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium, Datura innoxia, Datura ferox, Hyoscyamus niger</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> bei 15°C/10°C, 20°C/10°C und 25/10°C mit 14 Stunden Tageslicht und 10 Stunden Dunkelheit geprüft.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu wurden alle 3-4 Tage die gekeimten Samen gezählt und aussortiert.</s>
+                  <s>Der Auflauf der Arten war extrem unterschiedlich wobei einheitlich von allen Arten die höchste Temperaturstufe bevorzugt wurde.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus niger</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura ferox</hi> verfügen vermutlich über eine ausgeprägte Dormanz, da bei diesen Arten nur ein Auflauf von wenigen Pflanzen aus dem frischen Saatgut beobachtet werden konnte.</s>
+                  <s>Neben der Keimung wurden in einem Biotest die Bekämpfungsmöglichkeiten der Arten 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi>und 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> mit verschiedenen in Mais zugelassenen Herbiziden geprüft.</s>
+                  <s>Die Unkrautarten wurden im Keimblatt, 2-Blatt- und 4-6-Blattstadium mit der jeweils höchsten zugelassenen Aufwandmenge der Herbizide behandelt.</s>
+                  <s>Es zeigte sich, dass sich die im Keimblatt befindlichen Pflanzen mit den Herbiziden aus den Wirkgruppen der Photosynthesehemmer, Wuchsstoffe, Zellteilungshemmer und ALS-Hemmer ausreichend bis gut bekämpfen ließen.</s>
+                  <s>Größere 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura</hi>- und 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus</hi>-Pflanzen waren dagegen fast nicht mehr mit den verwendeten Wirkstoffen zu bekämpfen.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="bold">Stichwörter:</hi>Bekämpfung, Herbizid, Keimverhalten, Tropanalkaloide, Unkräuter  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Einleitung</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Tropanalkaloide sind sekundäre Pflanzenstoffe, die in Nachtschattengewächsen wie dem Weißen Stechapfel (
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium)</hi> und dem Schwarzen Bilsenkraut (
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus niger)</hi> vorkommen.</s>
+                  <s>Ein sporadisches Auftreten findet man auch in einigen Winden, Rotholz, Silberbaum-, Rhizophora-und Wolfsmilchgewächsen sowie Kreuzblütlern.</s>
+                  <s>Tropanalkaloide werden in den Wurzeln gebildet und mit dem Flüssigkeitsstrom über die Pflanze verteilt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Konzentrationen sind in der Regel am höchsten in den Wurzeln und Samen, wo sie als Schutz gegen Fraßfeinde dienen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Gruppe der Tropanalkaloide umfasst mehr als 200 unterschiedliche Alkaloide.</s>
+                  <s>Die bekanntesten sind das 
+            <pb n="478"/>Hyoscyamin und Scopolamin (L INDENMANN , 1961).</s>
+                  <s>Bereits im Mittelalter waren Tropanalkaloide als Arzneimittel bzw. Drogen im Umlauf (M ÜLLER -E BELING et al., 1999).</s>
+                  <s>Gelangen Pflanzenbestandteile dieser Arten über das Erntegut in Nahrungs- oder Futtermittel kann es zu Vergiftungssymptomen kommen.</s>
+                  <s>Beispielsweise vergifteten sich in Österreich im Jahr 2006 mehrere Personen durch den Verzehr eines mit Stechapfelsamen verunreinigten Hirsegerichts (A GES , 2017).</s>
+                  <s>In Deutschland kam es im Jahr 2015 vermehrt zu Rückrufaktionen des Handels, als bei der Untersuchung verschiedener Getreideprodukte, insbesondere Rispenhirse-Produkte (
+            <hi rend="italic">Panicum miliaceum</hi>)vielfach erhöhte Tropanalkaloidgehalte ermittelt wurden (B FR , 2013).</s>
+                  <s>Generell sind Sommerungen wie Hirse-Arten, Mais, Buchweizen und Sonnenblumen mehr von der Problematik betroffen als Winterungen, da die tropanalkaloidhaltigen Unkräuter wärmeliebend sind und erst relativ spät im Jahr auflaufen.</s>
+                  <s>Samen tropanalkaloidhaltiger Unkräuter sind nicht immer gut aus dem Erntegut heraus zu reinigen, hinzu kommt eine mögliche Kontamination durch andere Pflanzenteile wie Blattstückchen oder Pflanzensäfte (S ÖCHTING , 2016).</s>
+                  <s>In Deutschland sind der Weiße Stechapfel (
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi>)und das Schwarze Bilsenkraut (
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus niger</hi>)die wichtigsten tropanalkaloidhaltigen Acker-Unkräuter.</s>
+                  <s>Laut M EHRTENS (2005) liegen die Stetigkeiten für den weißen Stechapfel in Maisschlägen bei 0,3 % und für das Schwarze Bilsenkraut bei 0,4 %.</s>
+                  <s>Somit ist ein Auftreten der Arten in Kulturpflanzenbeständen zwar weniger häufig festzustellen, kann aber nach eigenen Erfahrungen schlagspezifisch massiv sein.</s>
+                  <s>Die Bedeutung von verunreinigten Futter- oder Nahrungsmitteln mit Tropanalkaloiden könnte zunehmen, da sich durch Klimaveränderung und veränderte Anbaustrukturen die betroffenen tropanalkaloidhaltigen Arten auch in Deutschland weiter ausbreiten werden.</s>
+                  <s>Am JKI wurden mit mehreren tropanalkaloidhaltigen Unkräutern Keimtests und Untersuchungen zu herbiziden Kontrollmöglichkeiten durchgeführt, um weitere Erfahrungen mit diesen Arten zu gewinnen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Material und Methoden</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Keimversuch im Labor Die Keimtests im Labor wurden auf Nährlösungsbasis durchgeführt.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der verwendeten Nährlösung handelte es sich um eine 2,0 mM Ca (NO 3 )2 + 0,1%ige Previcur Energy Lösung, um die Keimung anzuregen und Pilzwachstum zu verhindern.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Ermittlung der Keimfähigkeit sollten die Samen bei definierten Temperaturbedingungen in Petrischalen mittels Nährlösung zur Keimung gebracht werden.</s>
+                  <s>Zur Temperaturregulierung wurden Klimaschränke der Firma Rumed eingesetzt.</s>
+                  <s>Wie in der Einleitung erwähnt, sollte der Temperaturbereich für eine optimale Keimung ermittelt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Jede Petrischale wurde zuvor mit 2 Filterpapieren ausgelegt, dann wurden 5 ml der oben beschriebenen Nährlösung ausgebracht.</s>
+                  <s>Nachfolgend wurden jeweils 25 Samen der 5 Arten (Tab. 1) gleichmäßig in den Petrischalen verteilt.</s>
+                  <s>Das Saatgut stammte aus dem Jahr 2016 aus eigener Vermehrung.</s>
+                  <s>Je nach Variante mussten die Petrischalen täglich oder in Abstand von mehreren Tagen nachgewässert werden, damit die Samen nicht austrockneten.</s>
+                  <s>Im Klimaschrank wurden drei Temperaturvarianten für die Keimtests eingestellt und zwar 1. 15/10 °C Wechseltemperatur 2. 20/10 o C Wechseltemperatur 3. 25/10 ° C Wechseltemperatur Die Beleuchtung war 14 Stunden hell und 10 Stunden dunkel eingestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Versuche wurden wöchentlich bonitiert und galten als beendet, wenn nach zwei Zählterminen keine weitere Keimung mehr beobachtet werden konnte.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="479"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>Die gekeimten Samen wurden gezählt und mit einer Pinzette aus der Petrischale entfernt.</s>
+                  <s>Als gekeimt galten jene Samen, bei denen die gesunde Keimwurzel deutlich erkennbar war.</s>
+                  <s>Die Werte pro Schale bildeten eine Wiederholung.</s>
+                  <s>Aus den Wiederholungen wurden der Mittelwert mit Standardabweichung sowie die Keimfähigkeit in Prozent errechnet.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Biotest</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In einem Biotest wurde die Möglichkeit geprüft, 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi> mit Herbiziden zu bekämpfen.</s>
+                  <s>Dazu wurden die beiden Arten ausgesät und Pflanzen angezogen, die dann in entsprechende Töpfe pikiert wurden.</s>
+                  <s>Die Keimpflanzen wurden (4 Pflanzen/Topf) in vier Wiederholungen pikiert.</s>
+                  <s>Es wurde ein JKI Standardboden verwendet (gesiebt auf 2,5 mm, sterilisiert, ca. 6 % Ton; pH-Wert 6,4; C org 0,9 %).</s>
+                  <s>Nach dem Pikieren wurden die Versuchsgefäße für zwei Wochen im Gewächshaus aufgestellt (Tagphase: 20 °C +14 h Beleuchtung, Nachtphase: 10 °C).</s>
+                  <s>Danach erfolgte das Wachstum in Klimaschränken (Tagphase 20 °C + 14 h Beleuchtung mit 14000 Lux, Nachtphase: 10 °C).</s>
+                  <s>Die Bewässerung erfolgte mit Leitungswasser von oben.</s>
+                  <s>Die Herbizidapplikation erfolgte als on-Top-Applikation mit einer stationären Applikationsanlage der Firma Schachtner.</s>
+                  <s>Verwendet wurde eine Flachstrahldüse (Teejet 8003 EVS) mit einem Systemdruck von 7 bar und einem Düsendruck von 2,1 bar.</s>
+                  <s>Die Spritzgeschwindigkeit betrug 2 km/h und die Spritzhöhe 45 cm (Düse bis Gefäßoberfläche).</s>
+                  <s>Zur Versuchsauswertung wurden Wirkungsbonituren (Wirkungsgrad im Vergleich zur unbehandelten Kontrolle) durchgeführt und die oberirdische Pflanzenfrischmasse pro Gefäß jeweils 21 Tage nach Versuchsansatz ermittelt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Unkrautarten wurden in jeweils 3 Entwicklungsstadien bekämpft (Tab. 2).</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>Die im Versuch eingesetzten Herbizide (Tab. 3) werden im Mais verwendet und könnten unter Berücksichtigung der Selektivität (bezogen auf die Kulturpflanze), bis auf Callisto und Dual Gold auch in 
+            <hi rend="italic">Panicum miliaceum</hi> eingesetzt werden.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="480"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Ergebnisse</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Keimversuch im Labor Den besten Auflauf der Stechapfel-Arten zeigte 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi> mit 88 % der ausgelegten Samen bei 30 °C nach 10 Tagen.</s>
+                  <s>Bei 20 °C lag die maximale Keimfähigkeit der Art nach 10 Tagen mit 84 % nur geringfügig darunter.</s>
+                  <s>Schlechter war die Keimfähigkeit bei 15 °C mit 79 %.</s>
+                  <s>Dieser Wert wurde erst nach 28 Tagen erreicht.</s>
+                  <s>Die Keimfähigkeit von 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura innoxia</hi> war insgesamt deutlich schlechter.</s>
+                  <s>Die höchste Keimrate wurde mit 54 % bei 20 °C erzielt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Keimfähigkeit insgesamt war damit vergleichbar mit der 25 °C-Variante, in der 50 % der Samen aufliefen.</s>
+                  <s>Bei 25 °C erfolgte die Keimung allerdings zügiger und bereits nach 10 Tagen waren 38 % der Samen gekeimt, wohingegen bei 20 °C noch kein Keimling zu finden war.</s>
+                  <s>Bei 15 °C wurde auch nach 44 Tagen nur eine Keimfähigkeit von 12 % festgestellt.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="italic">Datura ferox</hi> zeigte das schlechteste Keimverhalten der drei geprüften Stechapfel-Arten.</s>
+                  <s>Bei dieser Art erfolgte keine Keimung bei 15 °C, bei 20 °C keimten 2 % und bei 25 °C 12 % der Samen.</s>
+                  <s>Auch die beiden Bilsenkraut-Arten zeigten große Unterschiede bezüglich der Keimfähigkeit.</s>
+                  <s>Keine Keimung wurde bei 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus niger</hi> ermittelt.</s>
+                  <s>Bei 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> keimten dagegen bei 30 °C 95 % der Samen.</s>
+                  <s>Bei 20 °C konnten nach 55 Tagen immerhin 88 % der Samen zur Keimung gebracht werden.</s>
+                  <s>Dagegen keimten bei 15 °C nur noch 5 % der Samen.</s>
+                  <s>Insgesamt zeigten die fünf geprüften Arten ein völlig unterschiedliches Keimverhalten (Abb. 1 und 2).</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="481"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <pb n="482"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Biotest</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wie aus Tabelle 2 hervorgeht, erfolgten die Herbizidbehandlungen von 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> im Keimblatt (KB), 2-Blatt und 4-6-Blattstadium, während 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi> im 2-Blatt und 4-6-Blattstadium behandelt wurde.</s>
+                  <s>Auch letztere Art sollte im Keimblattstadium behandelt werden, jedoch kamen nicht ausreichend Samen zur Keimung, so dass diese Variante verworfen werden musste.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi> im 2-Blattstadium ließ sich lediglich mit Buctril (Bromoxynil) hinreichend bekämpfen (Tab. 4).</s>
+                  <s>Basagran DP und Mais Banvel WG zeigten noch Wirkungsgrade um 30 % bezogen auf die Frischmassegehalte, während die anderen Herbizide kaum noch eine Wirkung zeigten.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> wurde im Keimblattstadium gut bekämpft (Ausnahme Dual Gold).</s>
+                  <s>Im 2-Blatt-Stadium nahm die Wirkung bei Dual Gold weiter ab und auch U 46 M-fluid, Harmony SX, Biathlon und Mais Banvel WG zeigten zurückgehende Wirkungsgrade.</s>
+                  <s>Im 4-6-Blattstadium von 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> war kein Herbizid mehr vollständig wirksam.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <pb n="483"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                     <gap instant="false"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Diskussion</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Keimtest im Labor Bevor man die Ergebnisse des Keimtests genauer betrachtet, gilt es festzustellen, dass die Arten 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura ferox</hi> und 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura innoxia</hi> in Deutschland nur sporadisch auftreten und als Ackerunkräuter keine Bedeutung besitzen.</s>
+                  <s>Da sie in den Versuchen deutlich schlechter keimten als 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi> und auch noch wärmeliebender sind, ist auf absehbare Zeit auch nicht mit diesen Arten als ernstzunehmendes Ackerunkraut zu rechnen.</s>
+                  <s>In anderen Regionen der Welt spielen die Arten dagegen sehr wohl eine Rolle.</s>
+                  <s>Der genetisch fixierte Zeitpunkt einer Unkrautkeimung wird je nach Art durch Umwelteinflüsse mehr oder weniger stark beeinflusst.</s>
+                  <s>In dem oben durchgeführten Keimtest wurde frisches Saatgut verwendet und die Keimung sollte unter einem Temperaturwechsel bei ebenfalls wechselnden Lichtverhältnissen stattfinden.</s>
+                  <s>Die bei uns häufige Stechapfelart 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura stramonium</hi>sprach gut auf diese Bedingungen an und zeigte schon bei 15 °C eine gute Keimfähigkeit, was für eine weiteres Verbreitungspotential dieser Art in Deutschland spricht.</s>
+                  <s>Die extrem schlechte Keimfähigkeit von 
+            <hi rend="italic">Datura ferox</hi> könnte auf eine ausgeprägtere Samenruhe zurückzuführen sein im Vergleich zu den anderen beiden Arten.</s>
+                  <s>Vermutlich braucht der Embryo im Samenkorn wesentlich 
+            <pb n="484"/>längere Entwicklungszeiten oder spezielle Keimhemmstoffe müssen deaktiviert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Ähnliches könnte für die bei uns weitverbreitete Art 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus niger</hi> gelten 
+            <hi rend="italic">,</hi> die partout keine Keimlinge hervorbrachte.</s>
+                  <s>Eventuell benötigen die Samen dieser einheimischen Art eine Frostperiode, um die Keimruhe zu brechen.</s>
+                  <s>Gegensätzlich dazu keimte die bei uns selten auftretende und eher in südeuropäischen Klimaten verbreite Art 
+            <hi rend="italic">Hyoscyamus albus</hi> bei 25 °C nahezu vollständig.</s>
+                  <s>Die Wärmebedürftigkeit dieser Art zeigt sich aber durch eine reduzierte Keimung der Samen bei 15 °C.</s>
+                  <s>Die nur bei hohen Temperaturen gleichmäßige und gute Keimung der hier geprüften Arten zeigt, dass in Kulturpflanzenbeständen in Deutschland damit gerechnet werden muss, dass die übliche Herbizidapplikation vor der Keimung der hier untersuchten Arten durchgeführt wird und somit keine ausreichende Bekämpfung mehr gewährleistet werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>Dieses dürfte besonders für im April ausgesäte Kulturen wie den Mais zutreffen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Biotest</s>
+               </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.S02.10366">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/S02.10366 Soziale Interaktion, In: Wikipedia
+                     - URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Interaktion: Wikipedia,
+                     2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Schnabeltassentier, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Soziale Interaktion</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Social_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <hi rend="bo">Soziale Interaktion</hi> bezeichnet das wechselseitig aufeinander
+                     bezogene <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziales_Handeln">Handeln</ref> (oder Beeinflussen) von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akteur">Akteuren</ref>
+                     (oder Gruppen), also das Geschehen zwischen Personen, die aufeinander
+                     reagieren, miteinander umgehen, einander beeinflussen und steuern.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f1" rend="ref"/> In
+                     der Informationswissenschaft ist Interaktion der Dialog von
+                        Handlungspartnern.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f2" rend="ref"/> Interaktion wird in der psychologischen
+                     Statistik auch im Zusammenhang mit varianzanalytischen Untersuchungen
+                        verwendet.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                  <s> Wenn die Wirkungen mehrerer Variablen gleichzeitig untersucht
+                        werden, ist die Interaktion ein Maß dafür, wie sehr der Effekt einer
+                        unabhängigen Variablen auf die abhängige Variable von den Bedingungen einer
+                        oder mehrerer anderer Variablen abhängt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der Sozialpsychologie spricht man laut Meyers
+                        Lexikon der Psychologie <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f4" rend="ref"/> von Interaktion bei der über
+                        Kommunikation vermittelten gegenseitigen Beeinflussung von Individuen oder
+                        Gruppen im Hinblick auf das Verhalten oder die Einstellungen.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der Interaktion einer Schulklasse z. B. beeinflussen sich
+                        Lehrer und Schüler gegenseitig, wobei sie sich an ihren jeweiligen
+                        Erwartungen (Rollenvorstellungen, Situationsdefinitionen) orientieren.</s>
+                  <s>Interaktion kann deswegen nur als Verhalten definiert werden, das
+                        im Rahmen von situativen Handlungskonzepten beschrieben wird.</s>
+                  <s>Die Interaktionsanalyse (R. F. Bales) versucht, das Handlungsgefüge
+                        von interagierenden Partnern zu beschreiben und strukturell offen zu
+                        legen.</s>
+                  <s>Bales hat dafür zwölf Kategorien vorgesehen (z. B. stimmt zu, zeigt
+                        Solidarität, macht Vorschläge, fragt nach Meinungen usw.) Mit Hilfe solcher
+                        Interaktionsstrukturen können etwa Gruppen charakterisiert (und von anderen
+                        unterschieden) werden.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f5" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Detlev Leuten spricht von einem Interaktionsbedarf bei
+                        Schülern im programmierten Unterricht und macht dabei die Bedeutung der
+                        Interaktion für das individuelle Lernen und die soziale Entwicklung des
+                        Individuums deutlich.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f6" rend="ref"/> Die Entwicklung des Individuum ist ohne
+                        soziale Interaktion kaum denkbar.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram-Experiment">Milgram-Experiment</ref> zeigt den dramatischen Einfluss auf das
+                        Verhalten von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versuchsperson">Versuchspersonen</ref> durch die Interaktion angeblicher
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorit%C3%A4t">Autoritätspersonen</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Begriffsverwendung </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Der eigentliche <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminus">Terminus</ref>, der später im amerikanischen als
+                           „interaction“ übersetzt wurde, stammt von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel">Georg Simmel</ref> und lautete „Wechselwirkung“.
+                           Soziale Interaktion ist die aktive Wechselwirkung von wenigstens zwei
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akteur">Akteuren</ref> oder sozialen Institutionen wie etwa Organisationen,
+                           z. B.</s>
+                     <s>zum Zwecke der Abstimmung des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialverhalten">Verhaltens</ref> der Beteiligten bzw. des konkreten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handeln">Handelns</ref> der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kooperation">Kooperations</ref>­partner.</s>
+                     <s>Voraussetzung für die Anschlussfähigkeit einer Interaktion ist
+                           die wechselseitige kommunikative Bezugnahme der an der Interaktion
+                           Beteiligten.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Bezugnahme kann Handlungsgründe, Handlungsziele sowie
+                           Erwartungen des Gegenübers umfassen.</s>
+                     <s>Da solche Interpretation immer auch wechselseitig ist, ist
+                           soziale Interaktion zugleich auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikation">Kommunikation</ref>.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Soziologie unterscheidet drei Ebenen des
+                           sozialen Lebens: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>Interaktion, </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationssoziologie">Organisation</ref> und </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesellschaft_%28Soziologie%29">Gesellschaft</ref>.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Organisationen und Gesellschaften bestehen aus
+                           (strukturierten) unzähligen sozialen Interaktionen der beteiligten
+                           Menschen.</s>
+                     <s>In einigen soziologischen Theorien gilt die <hi rend="bo">Interaktion</hi> als die Grundeinheit alles <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozial">Sozialen</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Soziologische Auffassungen sozialer Interaktion </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Mit sozialer Interaktion haben sich verschiedene Theorien und
+                           Soziologen auseinandergesetzt.</s>
+                     <s>Sie weisen jeweils spezifische Aspekte aus.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Symbolischer Interaktionismus </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Interaktion ist im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolischer_Interaktionismus">symbolischen Interaktionismus</ref> ein permanenter
+                              Prozess des Handelns, Beobachtens und Entwerfens weiterer Handlungen,
+                              in dem ego und alter wechselseitig die vermuteten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollenerwartung">Rollenerwartungen</ref> des anderen übernehmen oder
+                              ablehnen, darauf reagieren und weiteres Handeln antizipieren.</s>
+                        <s>Wechselseitige Interpretationen definieren die Situation,
+                              bestimmen, worum es geht oder nicht gehen soll, und leiten das Handeln
+                              an.</s>
+                        <s>Nicht vorgegebene Normen ermöglichen die Interaktion, sondern
+                              die gemeinsame Festlegung, welchen Sinn die Interaktion hat.</s>
+                        <s>Voraussetzung für das Gelingen von Interaktion ist die
+                              Fähigkeit zur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathie">Perspektivenübernahme</ref>.</s>
+                        <s>Diese Auffassung von Interaktion vertritt gegen das normative
+                              Paradigma das interpretative Paradigma.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f10" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Max Weber </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Nach <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber">Max Weber</ref> ist soziales Handeln seinem von den
+                              Handelnden gemeinten Sinn nach immer auf das Verhalten Anderer
+                              bezogen.</s>
+                        <s>Von sozialer Interaktion kann man insofern sprechen, als
+                              Handeln in einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Beziehung">sozialen Beziehung</ref> erfolgt, d.h. ein
+                              fortlaufendes aufeinander eingestelltes und dadurch orientiertes
+                              „Sich-Verhalten“ mehrerer ist.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f11" rend="ref"/> Die soziale Interaktion wird durch den
+                              individuellen Sozialisationsprozess sowie die individuell
+                              unterschiedliche selektive Wahrnehmung bestimmt.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> George Herbert Mead </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead">George Herbert Mead</ref> versteht unter einer
+                              sozialen Handlung nicht die Handlung eines Einzelnen.</s>
+                        <s>Die soziale Handlung ist auf ein soziales Objekt
+                              gerichtet.</s>
+                        <s>So ist z. B.</s>
+                        <s>das soziale Objekt des Fußballteams, Tore zu schießen bzw.
+                              das Spiel zu gewinnen.</s>
+                        <s>Das kooperative Zusammenspiel des Teams ist die soziale
+                              Handlung.</s>
+                        <s>Sie besteht aus sozialen Interaktionen zwischen den
+                              Spielpartnern, die dadurch koordiniert sind, erstens ein gemeinsames
+                              soziales Objekt zu haben und zweitens durch die Fähigkeit der
+                              Interaktionsteilnehmer, die Rolle, welche die anderen für die
+                              Erreichung des Zieles spielen, zu <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antizipation_%28Psychologie%29">antizipieren</ref> und entsprechend zu agieren und zu
+                              reagieren.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Talcott Parsons </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Nach <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons">Talcott Parsons</ref>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Rolle">Rollentheorie</ref> folgen wir in unserem Verhalten
+                              normativen Vorgaben, die sich aus sozialen Strukturen ergeben.</s>
+                        <s>Unsicherheit im Verhalten besteht, weil die Interpretation
+                              der Verhaltensnormen durch die Interaktionsteilnehmer unterschiedlich
+                              sein kann.</s>
+                        <s>Dass Interaktion trotzdem funktioniert, erklärt Parsons
+                              damit, dass die Teilnehmer durch Sozialisation die gleichen Normen und
+                              Werte der Gesellschaft internalisiert haben und daher motiviert sind,
+                              so zu handeln, wie sie handeln <hi rend="it">sollen</hi>.</s>
+                        <s>Eine solche Auffassung wird unter das normative Paradigma
+                                 gezählt.<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f11" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Im Gegensatz zu Parsons Ansatz steht das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaktionistisches_Rollenmodell">Interaktionistische Rollenmodell</ref>.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Ausgewählte Aspekte der sozialen Interaktion </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Bedingungen des Gelingens sozialer Interaktion </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Soziale Interaktion hängt direkt mit der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikation">Kommunikation</ref> zusammen.</s>
+                        <s>Deswegen gelten für eine erfolgreiche soziale Interaktion
+                              dieselben Bedingungen, wie für eine erfolgreiche Kommunikation.</s>
+                        <s>Von erfolgreicher Kommunikation und damit erfolgreicher
+                              sozialer Interaktion spricht man dann, wenn die Ziele der Interaktion
+                              erreicht wurden und die beabsichtigte Wirkung eintritt.</s>
+                        <s>Das heißt, dass die Erwartungen der Beteiligten an die
+                              Interaktion erfüllt wurden und somit auch deren Bedürfnisse.</s>
+                        <s>Als einfaches Beispiel ist das Unterrichtsgeschehen zu
+                              betrachten: Ein Schüler stellt eine Frage (sein Bedürfnis / seine
+                              Erwartung ist die Antwort) und der Lehrer beantwortet diese.</s>
+                        <s>Das Ziel ist dann erreicht, wenn der Schüler es verstanden
+                              hat, somit wurden sowohl die Erwartungen des Schülers sowie die des
+                              Lehrers erfüllt.</s>
+                        <s>Es ist auch wichtig, eine positive Interaktionsatmosphäre zu
+                              ermöglichen und seine Kommunikationsbereitschaft zu signalisieren.</s>
+                        <s>Wenn man zudem ständig die eigenen Zielsetzungen und
+                              Erwartungen an die Interaktion überprüft, läuft man auch nicht Gefahr,
+                              eine gestörte Interaktion zu provozieren.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Entwicklungspsychologie </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Das Individuum nimmt von früher Kindheit an Einfluss auf
+                              Situationen, die es andererseits selbst beeinflussen.</s>
+                        <s>Es beeinflusst die soziale und physische Umwelt.</s>
+                        <s>Der Mensch reagiert also nicht nur passiv, sondern gestaltet
+                              seine Umwelt selbst mit.</s>
+                        <s>Insofern bildet der Mensch (nach Leo Montada) <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f12" rend="ref"/> ein System, in dem Aktivitäten und Veränderungen
+                              miteinander verschränkt sind.</s>
+                        <s>Die Veränderungen von Details führen zu Veränderungen des
+                              Gesamtsystems - und wirken natürlich wieder zurück.</s>
+                        <s>Habe man früher gefragt, wie sich das Kind in einer Familie
+                              entwickle, frage man heutzutage eher, wie ein Kind auf eine Familie
+                              wirke und welche Wirkungen das Kind wiederum beeinflussten.</s>
+                        <s>Zum Beispiel würde nicht nur gefragt, wie sich die Scheidung
+                              auf das Kind auswirke, sondern auch, was Kinder zur Ehezufriedenheit
+                              beitrügen.</s>
+                        <s>Nach Montada <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f13" rend="ref"/> haben Kagan und Moss die Situation
+                              feindseliger Mütter und aggressiver Kinder untersucht: Sie fanden hohe
+                              Korrelationen zwischen beiden Faktoren.</s>
+                        <s>Traditionell würde man sagen, dass die Feindseligkeit der
+                              Mütter die Aggressivität der Kinder beeinflusse; besser sei aber die
+                              Frage nach wechselseitiger Beeinflussung bzw. die Frage nach der
+                              Feindseligkeit als Erbanlage, die sich bei Müttern in
+                              Kritikbereitschaft und bei Kindern in Aggressivität zeige - und sich
+                              damit gegenseitig beeinflusse.</s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Eine produktive Art, wie Jugendliche quasi als
+                              Agenten ihrer eigenen Entwicklung auftreten könnten, ist die Wahl
+                              anderer Handlungsräume (außerhalb der Familie).</s>
+                        <s>Das sei, so die Autoren, besonders in der frühen Adoleszenz
+                              von großer Bedeutung, in der es um zukünftige Handlungsräume gehe und
+                              um Peergruppen, die unabhängig von den Eltern seien.</s>
+                        <s>Diese Wahl externer Handlungsräume stabilisiere auch eine
+                              Existenz in einer sich verändernden Welt.</s>
+                        <s>Indem der Jugendliche alternative Situationen der Interaktion
+                              wählt, wird er zum Produzenten seiner eigenen Entwicklung - und
+                              Sozialisation.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f14" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Die überragende Bedeutung früher sozialer
+                              Interaktion für die optimale Entwicklung des Kindes haben <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Spitz">René Spitz</ref>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f15" rend="ref"/>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f16" rend="ref"/>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f17" rend="ref"/> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harlow">Harry Harlow</ref>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f18" rend="ref"/>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f19" rend="ref"/> sehr anschaulich deutlich gemacht.</s>
+                        <s>Der Mangel oder gar das Fehlen von Interaktion mit
+                              Bezugspersonen habe für das Kind verheerende psychische, motorische
+                              und intellektuelle Konsequenzen (siehe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitalismus">Hospitalismus</ref>).<ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f20" rend="ref"/>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.S02.10366-f21" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Soziale Interaktion und Kommunikation </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Soziale Interaktion findet immer auf der Grundlage oder
+                              zumindest vor dem Hintergrund gesellschaftsstruktureller
+                              Voraussetzungen statt.</s>
+                        <s>Die Gesellschaftsstruktur, also das Set dominanter Modi der
+                              Vergesellschaftung, beeinflusst somit die konkrete, situationale
+                              Interaktion.</s>
+                        <s>Beispiel: In einer hierarchisch-differenzierten Gesellschaft
+                              ist immer ein hierarchisches Verhältnis der
+                              Sich-in-Interaktion-Begebenden gesetzt.</s>
+                        <s>Hieraus ergeben sich Interaktions- und Kommunikationsweisen,
+                              die auf das Herstellen von Hierarchie ausgerichtet sind.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Siehe auch </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialog">Dialog</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identit%C3%A4t">Identität</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaktionistischer_Konstruktivismus">Interaktionistischer Konstruktivismus</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interkulturelle_Kompetenz">Interkulturelle Kompetenz</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaktionssystem">Interaktionssystem</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konflikt">Konflikt</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kooperation">Kooperation</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbale_Kommunikation">Nonverbale Kommunikation</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasoziale_Interaktion">Parasoziale Interaktion</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personale_Kategorisierung">Personale Kategorisierung</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodrama">Psychodrama</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selbstdarstellung">Selbstdarstellung</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziales_Netzwerk_%28Soziologie%29">Soziales Netzwerk (Soziologie)</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwischenmenschliche_Kommunikation">Zwischenmenschliche Kommunikation</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Literatur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Goffman, Erving (1986): Interaktion.</s>
+                        <s>Spaß am Spiel-Rollendistanz.</s>
+                        <s>München: Piper.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Goffman, Erving (1999):
+                              Interaktionsrituale.</s>
+                        <s>Über Verhalten in direkter Kommunikation.</s>
+                        <s>Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Kieserling, André (1999): Kommunikation unter
+                              Anwesenden.</s>
+                        <s>Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_Oerter">Rolf Oerter</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Montada">Leo Montada</ref>: Entwicklungspsychologie, Beltz Verlags Union,
+                              Weinheim, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-621-27479-0 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</ref> (1975): Interaktion,
+                              Organisation, Gesellschaft.</s>
+                        <s>In: Luhmann, Niklas (Hg.): Soziologische Aufklärung 2.
+                              Aufsätze zur Theorie der Gesellschaft.</s>
+                        <s>Opladen: WDV, S. 9–20. </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/es%3AInteracci%C3%B3n_social">es:Interacción social</ref>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.H11.73494">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/H11.73494 Hasskriminalität, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasskriminalität: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Seewolf, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Hasskriminalität</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Social_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>Als <hi rend="bo">Hasskriminalität</hi> (englisch: <hi rend="it">hate
+                        crimes</hi>) werden politisch motivierte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straftat">Straftaten</ref> bezeichnet, bei denen das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opfer_%28Kriminologie%29">Opfer</ref> des Delikts vom Täter vorsätzlich nach dem
+                     Kriterium der wirklichen oder vermuteten Zugehörigkeit zu einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Gruppe">gesellschaftlichen Gruppe</ref> oder auch biologischem Geschlecht (26
+                     Staaten schließen das Geschlecht als Opfermerkmal mit ein)<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f1" rend="ref"/>
+                     gewählt wird und sich die Tat gegen die gewählte Gruppe als Ganze bzw. in
+                     diesem Zusammenhang gegen eine Institution, Sache oder ein Objekt richtet.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f2" rend="ref"/> So
+                     können beispielsweise <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitismus_%28nach_1945%29">antisemitisch</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassismus">rassistisch</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismus">sexistisch</ref>
+                  <ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                     oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausl%C3%A4nderfeindlichkeit">ausländerfeindlich</ref> motivierte Straftaten unter den
+                     Begriff fallen, ebenso Straftaten gegen Mitglieder anderer gesellschaftlicher
+                     Gruppen wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdachlosigkeit">Obdachlose</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behinderte">Behinderte</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT">Schwule, Lesben und Transgender</ref> oder Frauen.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                  <s> Der Begriff stammt aus den USA und hat in verschiedenen Ländern
+                        der Welt eigenständige strafrechtliche Relevanz (z. B.</s>
+                  <s>in Großbritannien).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s> In der US-amerikanischen Fachdebatte wird aufgrund
+                        der terminologischen Unklarheit das Phänomen als <hi rend="it">bias
+                           crime</hi> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorurteil">vorurteilsgeleitete</ref> Straftat, Vorurteilskriminalität)
+                        bezeichnet, da gerade das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorurteilsforschung">Vorurteil</ref> (und nicht der Hass) leitendes Motiv der Handlungen
+                        darstellt.</s>
+                  <s>Allerdings hat sich der Begriff <hi rend="it">hate crime</hi> in
+                        den Medien, der Politik und Bevölkerung so durchgesetzt, dass eine
+                        Umbenennung kaum möglich erscheint.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Im Einzelfall kann es schwierig sein, eine Straftat
+                        eindeutig als <hi rend="it">hate crime</hi> einzustufen, da die subjektiven
+                        Motive hinter einer Straftat schwer nachzuweisen sind.</s>
+                  <s>Die Tat kann aber auch, z. B. als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriegsverbrechen">Kriegsverbrechen</ref>, den Charakter eines Hassverbrechens annehmen,
+                        wenn sie sich etwa gegen den Angehörigen einer z. B. ethnisch definierten
+                        Gruppe richtet, der das Opfer angehört oder als angehörig zugeschrieben
+                        wird.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Von den hier zugeordneten Gewaltverbrechen, der
+                        gefährlichen Drohung und Sachbeschädigungen zur Einschüchterung ist meist
+                        die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_Speech">Hate Speech</ref> (Hassrede) abzugrenzen, die nach unterschiedlichen
+                        Bedingungen oft durch die Meinungsfreiheit geschützt ist.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Besondere Auswirkungen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Ein Handbuch der Generalstaatsanwaltschaft der Provinz <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario">Ontario</ref> in Kanada fasst die besonderen Auswirkungen von <hi rend="it">Hate Crimes</hi> folgendermaßen zusammen<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f5" rend="ref"/>
+                           (ergänzt durch Informationen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association">American Psychological Association</ref>):<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f6" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Auswirkungen auf das Individuum: Es wird
+                              spezifisches psychologisches und emotionales Leid zugefügt, welches
+                              Rückwirkungen auf die Identität und das Selbstwertgefühl des Opfers
+                              haben.</s>
+                        <s>Opfer von Hate crimes können stärker von psychologischen
+                              Nachwirkungen und Krankheiten betroffen sein, als Opfer vergleichbarer
+                              Gewalttaten.</s>
+                        <s>Durch entsprechende Unterstützung können die Folgewirkungen
+                              nach dem Trauma gemindert werden.</s>
+                        <s>Zusätzlich ist der Grad der Gewalttätigkeit oft viel extremer
+                              als bei anderen Taten.<lb/> Hate Crimes werden von den
+                              Opfern seltener angezeigt als vergleichbare nicht-bias-motivierte
+                              Verbrechen, selbst wenn der Täter bekannt ist.</s>
+                        <s>Dies ist oft begründet durch die traumatische Erfahrung, die
+                              Angst vor Vergeltung oder dem Glauben, dass die
+                              Strafverfolgungsbehörden selbst Vorurteile haben und keine
+                              Unterstützung bieten würden.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Auswirkungen auf die Zielgruppe: Hier gibt es
+                              – egal ob beabsichtigt oder nicht – einen generell
+                              einschüchternden Effekt, weil sich die Mitglieder der Community durch
+                              das Ereignis verletzbarer fühlen.</s>
+                        <s>Das Gefühl von Sicherheit und Geborgenheit kann verloren
+                              gehen und es kann sogar die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychohygiene">psychischen Gesundheit</ref> der Mitglieder beeinträchtigt
+                              werden.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Auswirkungen auf andere gefährdete Gruppen: Auf
+                              Gruppen, die ebenfalls einen Minderheitsstatus haben oder sich mit der
+                              betroffenen Gruppe identifizieren, hat es ähnliche Auswirkungen,
+                              besonders wenn die Motivation auf Ideologien oder Lehren basieren, die
+                              eine größere Anzahl von Gruppen betreffen.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Auswirkungen auf die Gemeinschaft als Ganzes:
+                              Hate crimes können zur Aufspaltung der Menschen in einer Gesellschaft
+                              führen, die vorher in Harmonie und Gleichberechtigung miteinander
+                              lebten.</s>
+                        <s>Jedes Hate Crime ist ein Angriff auf eine multikulturelle
+                              Gesellschaft.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Begriffsherkunft aus dem US-amerikanischen Strafrecht </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Der Begriff <hi rend="it">Hate Crimes</hi> wurde im Rahmen der
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerrechtsbewegung">Bürgerrechtsbewegungen</ref> in den USA entwickelt.</s>
+                     <s>Es ist damit zunächst ein soziales Konstrukt, welches den
+                           unterschiedlichen gesellschaftlichen Gruppen strafrechtlichen Schutz vor
+                           Übergriffen garantieren sollte.</s>
+                     <s>Kritiker sehen darin deshalb einfach die Erweiterung des
+                           Bürgerrechtsparadigmas in die Welt des Verbrechens und Strafrechts.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                           Trotz aller Kritik ist der Begriff seit den 1980er Jahren erfolgreich in
+                           den USA und besitzt heute in fast allen Bundesstaaten juristische
+                           Relevanz.</s>
+                     <s>Dabei war ein Modell-Gesetzentwurf von besonderer Bedeutung:
+                           1981 veröffentlichten die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League">Anti-Defamation League</ref>, National Gay and Lesbian
+                           Task Force Foundation, das National Institute for Prejudice and Violence
+                           sowie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</ref> einen Gesetzentwurf,
+                           welcher vier Kernelemente beinhaltete: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ol">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Der Schutz vor Vandalismus von Institutionen,
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> die Straferhöhung bei Verbrechen, die lediglich
+                              aufgrund bestimmter Merkmale des Opfers begangen werden, </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> die Möglichkeit einer Zivilklage des Opfers
+                              gegen den Täter bei entsprechenden Handlungen, </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> die Schaffung einer einheitlichen Datensammlung
+                              auf Bundesstaaten- und Bundesebene sowie ein spezialisiertes Training
+                              für Polizisten im Zusammenhang mit solchen Delikten.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Mit diesem Modell-Gesetzentwurf hatten die
+                           Initiatoren Erfolg.</s>
+                     <s>Nicht nur bestätigte das Oberste Gericht der USA das Gesetz
+                           1993, auch haben fast alle Bundesstaaten mindestens einen der vier
+                           Abschnitte bis heute übernommen.</s>
+                     <s>Für den zentralen Aspekt der Strafverschärfung existieren heute
+                           drei Formen: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ol">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Das Strafmaß der zugrunde liegenden Straftat
+                              wird verdoppelt, teilweise auch verdreifacht.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Die Straferhöhung resultiert aus einer
+                              Umwandlung des Verbrechenstyp von z. B.</s>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergehen">Vergehen</ref> (misdemeanor) zu <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrechen">Verbrechen</ref> (felony).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Hassverbrechen werden als eigenständiger
+                              Straftatbestand geführt.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Hasskriminalität im deutschen Rechtssystem </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafrecht_%28Deutschland%29">deutsche Strafrecht</ref> kennt keine gesondert als
+                           Hassdelikte zu qualifizierenden Straftaten.</s>
+                     <s>Die Begriffsdefinition kann in Deutschland nur indirekt Relevanz
+                           in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsprechung">Rechtsprechung</ref> annehmen, wenn sie teilweise oder
+                           gänzlich zur Klassifizierung einer Straftat nach bestimmten Merkmalen
+                           herangezogen wird, beispielsweise zur Feststellung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebenslange_Freiheitsstrafe%23Gesetzliche_Regelung">besonderen Schwere der Schuld</ref> oder der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mord%23Mordmerkmale">niedrigen Beweggründe</ref> bei Mord.</s>
+                     <s>Gegen die direkte Anwendung des Begriffs <hi rend="it">hate
+                              crimes</hi> in Deutschland spricht zunächst, dass ein Hassdelikt im
+                           Allgemeinen als schwerer zu ahnden aufgefasst wird als ein anders
+                           motiviertes Verbrechen.</s>
+                     <s>Daneben wird die richterliche Beurteilung der Motivation des
+                           Täters als Abgleiten in ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesinnungsstrafrecht">Gesinnungsstrafrecht</ref> betrachtet.</s>
+                     <s>Zuletzt ist die Frage, ob die Androhung eines erhöhten
+                           Strafrahmens entsprechende Taten verhindern kann: Dem Strafrecht als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultima_ratio">Ultima ratio</ref> sollten solche symbolischen Lern-Botschaften
+                           widersprechen; da gerade Jugendliche die Taten begehen, würden diese
+                           entgegen dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erziehungsgedanke_im_Jugendstrafrecht">Erziehungsgedanken</ref> unverhältnismäßig bestraft;
+                           erhöhte Ausgrenzungs- und Desintegrationserfahrungen wären damit
+                              gefördert.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f8" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Zur Erkennung und Behandlung dieser Straftaten ist
+                           es erforderlich, neben den Gerichten auch die Polizei speziell zu
+                           schulen.</s>
+                     <s>Aufgrund einer defizitären Praxis<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                           bei der Erfassung der Opfer und des Ausmaßes <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsextremismus">rechtsextremistischer</ref> und fremdenfeindlicher Gewalttaten in der
+                           Bundesrepublik Deutschland wurde mit Wirkung vom 1. Januar 2001
+                           vereinbart, rechtsextremistisch orientierte Straftaten als „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisch_motivierte_Kriminalit%C3%A4t">politisch motivierte Kriminalität</ref>“ zu
+                           erfassen.</s>
+                     <s>In diesem Rahmen wurde auch eine Erfassungsmöglichkeit unter dem
+                           Oberbegriff „Hasskriminalität“ geschaffen, die als
+                           spezielle Untergruppe „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremdenfeindlichkeit">fremdenfeindliche</ref>“ und „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitismus_%28nach_1945%29">antisemitische</ref>“ Straftaten erfasst.</s>
+                     <s>Hierdurch wollte man gewährleisten, dass diese Straftaten klarer
+                           definiert und von den zuständigen Polizeidienststellen zentral gemeldet
+                              werden.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f10" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Bundesregierung definiert Hasskriminalität als
+                           politisch motivierte Straftaten, deren zu vermutendes Motiv beim Täter in
+                           der </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="dl">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>„politischen Einstellung, Nationalität,
+                              Volkszugehörigkeit, Rasse, Hautfarbe, Religion, Weltanschauung,
+                              Herkunft, sexuellen Orientierung, Behinderung, [im] äußeren
+                              Erscheinungsbil[d] oder [im] gesellschaftlichen Status“<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f11" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opfer_%28Kriminologie%29">Opfers</ref> begründet ist.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Gesetzesinitiative 2012 </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesrat_%28Deutschland%29">Bundesrat</ref> verabschiedete am 2. März 2012 den
+                              Entwurf eines <hi rend="it">Gesetzes zur Änderung des Strafgesetzbuchs
+                                 – Aufnahme menschenverachtender Tatmotive als besondere
+                                 Umstände der Strafzumessung</hi>,<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f12" rend="ref"/> das eine härtere
+                              Bestrafung von Täter ermöglichen sollte, die aus rassistischen,
+                              fremdenfeindlichen oder sonstigen menschenverachtenden Motiven
+                              gehandelt haben.</s>
+                        <s>Dazu sollte <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafgesetzbuch_%28Deutschland%29">Strafgesetzbuch</ref>, der die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafzumessung_%28Deutschland%29%23Grunds%25C3%25A4tze_der_Strafzumessung">Grundsätze der Strafzumessung</ref> verbindlich
+                              vorgibt, entsprechend ergänzt werden.</s>
+                        <s>Nach Auffassung des Bundesrats müsse das Strafrecht
+                              „ein klares Signal setzen, dass die Gesellschaft nicht bereit
+                              ist, entsprechende Gewalttaten – oftmals gegen ihre schwächsten
+                              Mitglieder – zu tolerieren.“ Einen eigenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatbestand">Straftatbestand</ref> „Hassverbrechen“ sollte es
+                              hingegen nicht geben.</s>
+                        <s>In den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Bundestag">Bundestag</ref> brachten zudem die Fraktionen der
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPD">SPD</ref> und des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCndnis_%2790%2FDie_Gr%C3%BCnen">Bündnis &amp;amp;#39;90/Die Grünen</ref>
+                              Gesetzentwürfe ein.</s>
+                        <s>Der Deutsche Bundestag hat am 18. Oktober 2012 mit den
+                              Stimmen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionsfraktion">Unionsfraktion</ref> und der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDP-Fraktion">FDP-Fraktion</ref> abgelehnt.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f13" rend="ref"/>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f14" rend="ref"/> Ein solches Gesetz trat also nicht in Kraft.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div n="3" type="section">
+                     <head type="cross">
+                        <s> Gesetzesinitiative 2014 </s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Am 27. August 2014 verabschiedete das Bundeskabinett der
+                              Großen Koalition einen Gesetzentwurf gegen Hasskriminalität.</s>
+                        <s>Der Gesetzentwurf zielt darauf ab, Delikte, die aufgrund von
+                              Rassismus oder „sonstigen menschenverachtenden
+                              Beweggründen“ begangen wurden, schärfer zu ahnden.</s>
+                        <s>Dazu solle <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafgesetzbuch_%28Deutschland%29">Strafgesetzbuch</ref>, der die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafzumessung_%28Deutschland%29%23Grunds%25C3%25A4tze_der_Strafzumessung">Grundsätze der Strafzumessung</ref> verbindlich
+                              vorgibt, entsprechend ergänzt werden.</s>
+                        <s>In der Begründung zum Gesetzentwurf verweist die
+                              Bundesregierung darauf, dass als „sonstige menschenverachtende
+                              Beweggründe“ das 2001 beschlossene Definitionssystem <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_Straftat%23Politisch_motivierte_Kriminalit%25C3%25A4t">Politisch motivierte Kriminalität</ref> (PMK)</hi>
+                              als Bezugspunkt herangezogen werden könne.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f15" rend="ref"/>
+                           <ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f16" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Häufigkeit von Hasskriminalität in Deutschland </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Eine EU-Studie hat Hasskriminalität in Deutschland und anderen
+                           EU Ländern analysiert.</s>
+                     <s>Für 2006 identifizierte die Studie 18.142 Fälle von
+                           Hasskriminalität, wovon 17.597 von rechtsextremen Ideologien motiviert
+                           waren; die Studie beobachtete 14 % Wachstum über ein Jahr.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f17" rend="ref"/> Im Vergleich gab es in 2006 in den USA 7.722 Fälle von
+                              Hasskriminalität.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f18" rend="ref"/> Die Häufigkeit von Hasskriminalität
+                           und Rechtsextremismus werde von der deutschen Bevölkerung
+                              unterschätzt.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f19" rend="ref"/> Oft wird von Ermittlungsbehörden,
+                           Justiz oder Medien das Hassmotiv nicht thematisiert.</s>
+                     <s>So wurde 2016 ein antisemitischer versuchter Totschlag in
+                           Nürnberg im Urteil und in der Pressearbeit von Justiz und Polizei als
+                           unpolitisches Trunkenheitsdelikt bagatellisiert.</s>
+                     <s>Auch weite Teile der Berichterstattung thematisierten das Motiv
+                           nicht.</s>
+                     <s>Der Täter, der das Opfer ins U-Bahn-Gleisbett stieß und durch
+                           Tritte gegen Kopf und Finger daran hinderte, wieder zum Bahnsteig
+                           hinaufzusteigen, erklärte bei seiner Festnahme: „Ich habe das
+                           gemacht, weil er ein Jude ist.</s>
+                     <s>Das nächste Mal mache ich es richtig“ und „Ich
+                           hasse alle Juden.“ Pressevertreter rechtfertigten dies damit, dass
+                           man Nachahmungstäter abhalten wolle - ein Standpunkt, der aus
+                           juristischer Sicht bezweifelt wird, denn Nachahmungstäter werden durch
+                           schuldangemessen harte Bestrafung und entsprechende Berichterstattung
+                           darüber abgeschreckt.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f20" rend="ref"/>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f21" rend="ref"/>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f22" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Hasskriminalität im britischen Rechtssystem </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vereinigtes_K%C3%B6nigreich">Vereinigten Königreich</ref> wurde festgestellt, dass
+                           Hassverbrechen schwerwiegendere psychologische Verletzungen bei den
+                           Opfern hervorrufen als Delikte mit einer vorurteilsfreien Motivation,
+                           weil sie den Menschen in seinen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menschenrechte">Menschenrechten</ref> und seiner <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identit%C3%A4t">Identität</ref> angreifen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Seit der Einführung des Begriffs der Hassdelikte
+                           werden feindselige, vorurteilsbehaftete Verbrechen gegenüber einer Person
+                           oder Gruppe aufgrund der Zugehörigkeit zu einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minderheit">Minderheit</ref> gesondert erfasst und verfolgt.<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f23" rend="ref"/> Viele Formen des „<hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_Speech">Hate Speech</ref>
+                        </hi>“ sind hingegen von der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meinungsfreiheit">Meinungsfreiheit</ref> geschützt,<ptr target="WPD17.H11.73494-f24" rend="ref"/> jedoch nicht so weit wie in
+                           den Vereinigten Staaten.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Siehe auch </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antischwule_Gewalt">Antischwule Gewalt</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksverhetzung">Aufstachelung zum Rassenhass</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdachlosendiskriminierung">Obdachlosendiskriminierung</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Weblinks </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.e110.de/artikel/detail.cfm?pageid=271&amp;amp;id=65231">Hasskriminalität gegen Minderheiten</ref> - Definition +
+                           Link auf eine umfangreiche Studie </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.civilrights.org/issues/hate/">Hate
+                              Crimes</ref>
+                        <hi rend="pt">(engl.)</hi>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                        <hi rend="pt">(engl.)</hi>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.journascience.org/de/fremdenfeindlich/basics/schneider_hassdelikte/index.shtml">Kriminologie der Hassdelikte - Konzeptionen, Ursachen,
+                              Vorbeugung und Kontrolle</ref> von Prof. Dr. Hans Joachim Schneider
+                        </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Quellen </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.M00.26519">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/M00.26519 Mortalität, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortalität: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>FranzR, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Mortalität</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Social_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s> Die <hi rend="bo">Mortalität</hi> (von lat.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="it">mortalitas</hi> „Sterblichkeit“), <hi rend="bo">Sterblichkeit</hi> oder <hi rend="bo">Sterberate</hi> ist ein Begriff
+                        aus der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demografie">Demografie</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Sie bezeichnet die Anzahl der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tod">Todesf</ref>älle
+                        bezogen auf die Gesamtanzahl der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individuum">Individuen</ref> oder, bei der <hi rend="bo">spezifischen
+                           Sterberate,</hi> bezogen auf die Anzahl in der betreffenden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundgesamtheit">Population</ref>, meist in einem bestimmten Zeitraum.</s>
+                  <s>Die Mortalität im Sinne von Sterbewahrscheinlichkeit findet sich in
+                        der ersten Spalte jeder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterbetafel">Sterbetafel</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="bo">Sterbeziffer</hi> oder <hi rend="bo">Mortalitätsziffer</hi> bezeichnet das Verhältnis der Anzahl der
+                        Sterbefälle zum Durchschnittsbestand einer Population.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f1" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="it">rohe</hi> Mortalität ist die Anzahl
+                        der Todesfälle pro Gesamtbevölkerung pro Zeit, beispielsweise pro 1000
+                        Personen und ein Jahr.</s>
+                  <s>Die <hi rend="it">altersspezifische</hi> Mortalität, zum Beispiel
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindersterblichkeit">Kindersterblichkeit</ref>, gibt die Todesfälle pro
+                        Altersklasse pro Zeit an.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letalit%C3%A4t">Letalität</ref> ist die Mortalität bezogen auf die Gesamtzahl der an
+                        einer Krankheit Erkrankten.</s>
+                  <s>Bei der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4uglingssterblichkeit">Säuglings-</ref> oder der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCttersterblichkeit">Müttersterblichkeit</ref> bildet die Zahl der Ereignisse
+                        (Geburten) die Bezugsgröße, nicht die Bevölkerungsgröße.</s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Mortalitätskurve </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>[[Datei:Altersspezifische Sterberaten
+                           Deutschland.svg|mini|hochkant=1.8|Altersspezifische Sterberaten in
+                           Deutschland der Jahre 1990 und 2010 (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmische_Darstellung">log.&amp;amp;nbsp;Skala</ref>)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;<hi rend="it">
+                           <ref target="http://www.mortality.org/">The Human
+                                 Mortality Database.</ref>
+                        </hi>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max-Planck-Institut_f%C3%BCr_demografische_Forschung">Max-Planck-Institut für demografische Forschung</ref>,
+                           Stand 5. Mai 2013.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;]] Nach dem Geburtsrisiko sinkt die
+                           Sterberate auf ihren Minimalwert für Acht- bis Zehnjährige mit ca. 20
+                           Todesfällen pro 100.000 Personen der Altersklasse pro Jahr <hi rend="it">(tpj),</hi> siehe Diagramm.</s>
+                     <s>Mit fast 50 % sind Unfälle die Todesursache.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                           Für 15- bis 20-Jährige bilden ebenfalls Unfälle das Hauptrisiko (40 <hi rend="it">tpj</hi>), gefolgt von Mord (ca. 18 <hi rend="it">tpj</hi>
+                           für USA, 40 <hi rend="it">tpj</hi> für Südafrika, 5 <hi rend="it">tpj</hi> für Deutschland) und Suizid (12 <hi rend="it">tpj</hi>).</s>
+                     <s>Mit zunehmendem Alter bleiben die Suizidrate und die
+                           Unfallhäufigkeit nahezu unverändert, während Krankheiten den Hauptanteil
+                           an der Sterberate von 800 <hi rend="it">tpj</hi> bei den 50- bis
+                           60-Jährigen darstellen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_de_Moivre">Abraham de Moivre</ref> (1725) approximierte die
+                           altersabhängige Sterblichkeitsrate durch eine hyperbolische Zunahme des
+                           Sterberisikos, begrenzt durch ein maximales Lebensalter.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Gompertz">Benjamin Gompertz</ref> (1824) schlug eine exponentielle
+                           Zunahme der Mortalität vor, was die beobachteten Daten ab dem
+                           30. Lebensjahr gut wiedergibt.</s>
+                     <s>Verfeinerte Modelle führen weitere Parameter ein.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Modellierung nach Gompertz </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im <hi rend="it">Gompertz-Diagramm</hi> (s. Mortalitätskurve
+                           oben) wird der Logarithmus der Sterberate über dem Lebensalter
+                           aufgetragen.</s>
+                     <s>In der logarithmischen Darstellung ist zu sehen, dass ab einem
+                           Alter von ca. 30 Jahren der Anstieg annähernd linear verläuft: Die
+                           Sterberate verdoppelt sich in etwa in konstanten Zeitintervallen.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Zeitspanne kürzt man auch als MRDT von <gap reason="template" instant="false"/> ab (oder MRD).</s>
+                     <s>Der lineare Anstieg in der logarithmischen Darstellung
+                           entspricht einer exponentiellen Zunahme der Sterberate mit dem
+                           Lebensalter.</s>
+                     <s>Bei der mathematischen Modellierung wird üblicherweise der
+                           natürliche Logarithmus verwendet, sodass die Sterberate wie folgt
+                           beschrieben wird: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="dl">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="math" instant="false"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Dabei bezeichnet <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> die Sterblichkeit im Alter von 30 Jahren.</s>
+                     <s>Eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausgleichsrechnung">Anpassung</ref> für den Parameter <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> liefert einen Wert von <gap reason="math" instant="false"/>, das entspricht einer
+                           MRDT von <gap reason="math" instant="false"/> Jahren.</s>
+                     <s>Der Faktor <gap reason="math" instant="false"/>
+                           heißt <hi rend="it">Gompertz-Sterbekoeffizient.</hi> Studien haben
+                           ergeben, dass die MRDT seit der Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts bis heute
+                           typischerweise in Australien, den USA, Japan und Nordeuropa zwischen 7
+                           und 9 Jahren liegt.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f4" rend="ref"/> Daher wird der Wert oft mit 8 abgeschätzt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Werte des MRDT für andere Tierarten sind zum
+                           Vergleich: Labormaus 0,27 Jahre, Laborhamster 0,5, Rhesusaffe 15, Pferd
+                           4, Haushund 3, Heringsmöwe 5, Königsfasan 1,6 Jahre.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f3" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Beispiele für Mortalität </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Intrauterine Sterblichkeit oder
+                              Fötalsterblichkeit bezieht sich auf die Zeit der Schwangerschaft, sie
+                              schließt Fehlgeburten, Totgeburten und Schwangerschaftsabbrüche
+                              ein.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Frühsterblichkeit der Säuglinge oder
+                              Neonatalsterblichkeit ist eine Untermenge der Säuglingssterblichkeit
+                              (1. bis 4. Monat).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Perinatale Sterblichkeit ist die Summe von
+                              Neonatalsterblichkeit und Fötalsterblichkeit, verschiedentlich
+                              vermindert um unterschiedlich lange Phasen des Beginns der
+                              Schwangerschaft, nach <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltgesundheitsorganisation">WHO</ref> 22 Wochen.</s>
+                        <s>Sie liegt 2006 für Föten von mindestens 1 kg und einen
+                              Zeitraum bis 6 Tage nach der Geburt bei 0,3 % (Luxemburg), 0,5 %
+                              (Deutschland), 1 % (Frankreich) und 1,5 % (Mazedonien) der
+                              Geburten.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4uglingssterblichkeit">Säuglingssterblichkeit</ref> um 2000 in Deutschland:
+                              400 Todesfälle pro 100.000 Geburten = 4 pro 1000 = 1/250.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCttersterblichkeit">Müttersterblichkeit</ref> bei Geburt 2003 in
+                              Deutschland: 12 pro 100.000 Gebärende, bei Geburt 2003 in Kenia: 1300
+                              pro 100.000. </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Sterblichkeit in Deutschland: 1000 Todesfälle
+                              auf 100.000 Einwohner pro Jahr = 10 pro 1000 = 1/100.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Verkehrssterblichkeit 2004: Tödliche Unfälle
+                              pro 100.000 Einwohner pro Jahr: in Deutschland 8, in den Niederlanden
+                                 5.<ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f5" rend="ref"/>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Todesfälle durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitz">Blitzschlag</ref> in Deutschland:<ptr target="WPD17.M00.26519-f6" rend="ref"/> 5 Todesfälle pro
+                              80 Mio.</s>
+                        <s>Einwohner = 0,006 pro 100.000. </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Besser als die allgemeine oder rohe Mortalität
+                           eignet sich die mittlere <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebenserwartung">Lebenserwartung</ref> für den Vergleich unterschiedlicher Regionen,
+                           da diese die möglicherweise unterschiedliche altersstrukturelle
+                           Zusammensetzung der Bevölkerung ausgleicht.</s>
+                     <s>Bezogen auf die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altersstruktur">Altersstruktur</ref> weisen stark unterschiedliche Bevölkerungen auch
+                           sehr unterschiedliche Mortalitätsraten auf.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Oft wird aus der Mortalität/Jahr für eine
+                           Risikobewertung eine allgemeine Sterbewahrscheinlichkeit abgeleitet.</s>
+                     <s>Beispielsweise sterben in Deutschland mit 80 Millionen
+                           Einwohnern etwa fünf Personen pro Jahr an Blitzschlag.</s>
+                     <s>Ein Lebensalter von 80 Jahren angenommen, beträgt das Risiko, am
+                           Blitzschlag zu sterben, 1:200.000.</s>
+                     <s>Entsprechend liegt das Verkehrsunfallrisiko in Deutschland bei
+                           1:150.</s>
+                     <s>Schließlich ist das allgemeine Risiko, innerhalb von 80
+                           Lebensjahren zu sterben, 1:1,25 = 80 %.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Einflussgrößen </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Einflussgrößen für die Mortalität sind vor allem: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Ökologische Determinanten (insbesondere Umwelt,
+                              Vorsorge vor Naturkatastrophen) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Sozioökonomische, politische und kulturelle
+                              Determinanten (körperliche Arbeit, Arbeitsschutz, Einkommen,
+                              Ernährung, Lebensstil, Krieg, Verkehr, …) </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Medizinische Determinanten (zum Beispiel
+                              genetische Faktoren, Qualität der medizinischen Versorgung,
+                              Schutzimpfungen, gesundheitliche Aufklärung, Hygienevorschriften etc.)
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Während er sich statistisch herausmittelt,
+                              verbleibt der Zufall als Schicksal für den Einzelnen: Glück und
+                              Unglück.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die <hi rend="it">standardisierte
+                              Mortalitätsrate</hi> befasst sich mit den Angaben der Sterbefälle von
+                           Personengruppen, die bzgl. Alter, Geschlecht etc. mathematisch
+                           vergleichbar gemacht werden.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Verwendung </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geburtenrate">Geburtenrate</ref> und Sterberate bilden wichtige Parameter zur
+                           Bestimmung der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altersverteilung">Altersverteilung</ref> einer Gesellschaft und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationsdynamik">Populationsdynamik</ref> im Allgemeinen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die Mortalität wird auch in manchen Kriterien der
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risikoanalyse">Risikoanalyse</ref> verwendet (siehe <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimale_endogene_Mortalit%C3%A4t">Minimale endogene Mortalität</ref>).</s>
+                     <s>In der Technik werden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausfallwahrscheinlichkeit">Ausfallwahrscheinlichkeiten</ref> im Rahmen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ereigniszeitanalyse">Ereigniszeitanalysen</ref> untersucht.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Siehe auch </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morbidit%C3%A4t">Morbidität</ref> – Erkrankungshäufigkeiten
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letalit%C3%A4t">Letalität</ref> – Sterbehäufigkeiten nach
+                              Erkrankung </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_und_absolute_Risikoreduktion">Relative und absolute Risikoreduktion</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anzahl_der_notwendigen_Behandlungen">Anzahl der notwendigen Behandlungen</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikromort">Mikromort</ref>, Maßeinheit für Sterberisiko </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Literatur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislaus_von_Bortkewitsch">Ladislaus von Bortkewitsch</ref>: <hi rend="it">Die
+                                 mittlere Lebensdauer.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Die Methoden ihrer Bestimmung und ihr Verhältnis zur
+                                 Sterblichkeitsmessung.</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s> Gustav Fischer, Jena 1893 (<ref target="http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN527403490">Digitalisat</ref>).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Rainer Wehrhahn, Verena Sandner Le Gall: <hi rend="it">Bevölkerungsgeographie.</hi> WBG (Wissenschaftliche
+                              Buchgesellschaft), Darmstadt 2011, ISBN 978-3-534-15628-3,
+                              S. 36–45. </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Weblinks </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>.</s>
+                        <s>In: <hi rend="it">Online-Handbuch des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin-Institut_f%C3%BCr_Bev%C3%B6lkerung_und_Entwicklung">Berlin-Instituts für Bevölkerung und
+                                    Entwicklung</ref>.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="http://www.gbe-bund.de/gbe10/i?i=8:12672290D">Sterbefälle, Sterbeziffern je 100.000 Einwohner in
+                                    Deutschland.</ref>
+                           </hi> Statistisches Bundesamt.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/gesundheit/gesundheitszustand/sterblichkeit-todesursachen.html">Sterblichkeit und Todesursachen in der
+                                    Schweiz.</ref>
+                           </hi> Bundesamt für Statistik.</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="http://www.mortalitaet.nicoleueberschaer.de/">Mortalitätsatlas von Berlin.</ref>
+                           </hi>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="http://www.disastercenter.com/cdc/111riska.html">Mortalität und Todesursachen in den USA
+                                    1996.</ref>
+                           </hi> Bei: <hi rend="it">disastercenter.com.</hi> (Englisch).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <hi rend="it">
+                              <ref target="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html">Länderstatistiken</ref>
+                           </hi> der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency">CIA</ref> (englisch).</s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Einzelnachweise </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.DeReKo.WPD17.E51.96136">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>WPD17/E51.96136 Eigentumstheorien, In: Wikipedia -
+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigentumstheorien: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Prüm, u.a.</author>
+                  <title>Eigentumstheorien</title>
+                  <pubPlace/>
+                  <publisher/>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Social_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <hi rend="bo">Eigentumstheorien</hi> sind systematische Erklärungsversuche
+                        zur Entstehung und Rechtfertigung der gesellschaftlichen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution">Institution</ref> des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigentum">Eigentums</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s> Das Recht auf persönliches <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hab_und_Gut">Hab und
+                           Gut</ref> wird in der Regel nicht infrage gestellt.</s>
+                  <s>Kontroverse Positionen gibt es hingegen in Hinblick auf das
+                        Eigentum an Grund und Boden sowie in der Moderne in Hinblick auf das
+                        Eigentum an Produktionsmitteln.</s>
+                  <s>Häufig wird unter dem Stichwort „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialpflichtigkeit_des_Eigentums">Sozialpflichtigkeit des Eigentums</ref>“ zusätzlich
+                        die Frage diskutiert, ob und inwieweit aus Eigentum gesellschaftliche <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verantwortung">Verantwortung</ref> hervorgeht.</s>
+                  <s>Eigentumstheorien sind daher oft Bestandteil der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_Philosophie">politischen Philosophie</ref>, insbesondere von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staatstheorie">Staatstheorien</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Mit der Differenzierung der Wissenschaften seit dem 19. Jahrhundert
+                        haben sich eigenständige Sichtweisen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftswissenschaft">Wirtschaftswissenschaften</ref>, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_Theorie">Politikwissenschaften</ref> und der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie">Soziologie</ref> entwickelt.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Eigentum ist zugleich auch Gegenstand der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theologie">theologischen</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialethik">Sozialethik</ref>, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichtswissenschaft">Geschichtswissenschaft</ref> oder der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialanthropologie">Sozialanthropologie</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Als rechtlicher Begriff ist Eigentum sowohl Gegenstand des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatrecht">Privatrechts</ref> als auch des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ffentliches_Recht">öffentlichen Rechts</ref>. [[Datei:Finca
+                           SierraMorena.jpg|miniatur|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grund_und_Boden">Grund und Boden</ref>]] [[Datei:Airacobra P39 Assembly LOC
+                           02902u.jpg|miniatur|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Produktionsmittel">Produktionsmittel</ref>]] [[Datei:Salaping papel Euro.jpg|miniatur|<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papiergeld">Papiergeld</ref>]] [[Datei:Aktie Maria Anna Steinbank Bochum
+                        1857.jpg|miniatur|Eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktie">Aktie</ref>]] [[Datei:Venice Casino Royale
+                        001.JPG|miniatur|Yacht als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxusgut">Luxusgut</ref>]] </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Systematik </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Je nach Blickwinkel orientieren sich die Autoren von
+                           Eigentumstheorien eher an der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaft">wirtschaftlichen</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemeinschaft">Gemeinschaft</ref>, an den politischen Strukturen einer Gesellschaft
+                           oder an den kulturellen Traditionen (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion">Religion</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik">Ethik</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht">Recht</ref>).<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f1" rend="ref"/> Oft kann man Eigentumstheorien danach
+                           unterscheiden, ob sie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualismus">individualistisch</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollektivismus">kollektivistisch</ref> ausgerichtet sind.</s>
+                  <s>Auf die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemeinschaft">Gemeinschaft</ref> bezogene Ansätze gehen davon aus,
+                           dass es von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturzustand">Natur</ref> aus, beziehungsweise in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur-_und_Fr%C3%BChgeschichte">Ur- und Frühgeschichte</ref>, kein Privateigentum gab
+                           und dass individuelles Eigentum die wesentliche Ursache für Kriege und
+                           andere gewaltsame Auseinandersetzungen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Zu den kollektivistischen Eigentumslehren zählen verschiedene
+                           Utopien, die von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon">Platons</ref>
+                     <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeia">Politeia</ref>
+                     </hi> über die Überlieferungen des Begründers der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa">Stoa</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenon_von_Kition">Zenon von Kition</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Morus">Thomas Morus</ref>’ <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia_%28Roman%29">Utopia</ref>
+                     </hi> bis hin zum <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnenstaat">Sonnenstaat</ref>
+                     </hi> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</ref> reichen.</s>
+                  <s>Mit der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialisierung">Industrialisierung</ref> entstanden in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderne">Moderne</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchismus">anarchistische</ref> beziehungsweise <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialismus">sozialistische</ref> Gesellschaftsmodelle, insbesondere von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx">Karl
+                              Marx</ref>, die vor allem das Eigentum an <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Produktionsmittel">Produktionsmitteln</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verm%C3%B6gensverteilung">ungleiche Verteilungen</ref> der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_%28Wirtschaftswissenschaft%29">Güter</ref> kritisierten.</s>
+                  <s>Neben den Protagonisten des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realsozialismus">real existierenden Sozialismus</ref> versuchten religiöse Gruppen wie
+                           einige Gruppen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A4ufer">Täufer</ref> wie die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutterer">Hutterer</ref>, die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuitenreduktionen_der_Guaran%C3%AD">Jesuiten in Paraguay</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaker_%28Religion%29">Shaking Quäker</ref> oder die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibbuz">Kibbuz</ref>-Bewegung, diese Gedanken in die Praxis umzusetzen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die meisten Urheber von Eigentumstheorien gehen von
+                           einem Recht auf Privateigentum aus.</s>
+                  <s>Dies beruht entweder auf einer praktischen Vereinbarung, wie bei
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles">Aristoteles</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_von_Aquin">Thomas von Aquin</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume">David
+                              Hume</ref> und den Vertretern der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Verf%C3%BCgungsrechte">Theorie der Verfügungsrechte</ref> oder auf einem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturrecht">Naturrecht</ref>, so beispielsweise bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf">Samuel von Pufendorf</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Grotius">Hugo
+                              Grotius</ref>, auf dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menschenrecht">Menschenrecht</ref>, wie <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke">John
+                              Locke</ref> annahm oder nach <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</ref> auf dem <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernunftrecht">Vernunftrecht</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Auffassungen über das Eigentum sind häufig verknüpft mit den
+                           Theorien über den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesellschaftsvertrag">Gesellschaftsvertrag</ref> und über das Staatsrecht.</s>
+                  <s>Nach der Begründung einer legitimen Entstehung von Eigentum
+                           unterscheidet man </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Okkupationstheorie ist die historisch älteste
+                           Auffassung, die sich bis in die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antike">Antike</ref> zurückverfolgen lässt.</s>
+                  <s>Ihr Nachteil ist, dass sie politisch weitgehend neutral ist und
+                           sowohl für die Begründung eines <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus">liberalen</ref> Staates, als auch für eine <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolutismus">absolutistische</ref> Herrschaft und für eine dem
+                           Gemeinschaftsprinzip folgende Ordnung herangezogen werden kann.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                           Aus diesem Grund entwarf <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke">John
+                              Locke</ref> das Konzept der Arbeitstheorie, weil auf deren Grundlage
+                           ein Eingriff des Staates in die individuellen Rechte nicht mehr zu
+                           rechtfertigen war.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Theorie setzte sich in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitalter_der_Aufkl%C3%A4rung">Aufklärung</ref> durch und wurde ein vorherrschendes
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigma">Paradigma</ref> bis in die Moderne.</s>
+                  <s>Erst in jüngerer Zeit gewannen eine pragmatische Sicht, etwa wie
+                           bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume">Hume</ref>, und das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant">Kantische</ref> „Vernunftrecht“ an Bedeutung.</s>
+                  <s>In der Gegenwartsliteratur mehrt sich die auf <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wesley_Newcomb_Hohfeld">Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Honor%C3%A9">Tony Honoré</ref> zurückgehende Sicht des Eigentums als ein
+                           „Bündel“ von Rechten und Pflichten in einem demokratischen
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsstaat">Rechtsstaat</ref>.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f5" rend="ref"/> Es umfasst je nach Autor
+                           unterschiedliche Komponenten, beispielsweise:<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f6" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Aufgabe einer Eigentumsordnung ist es, zu
+                           bestimmen, welche der Elemente in welchem Maße zum Zuge kommen, wer
+                           Eigentümer sein darf (nur <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat%C3%BCrliche_Person">natürliche</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juristische_Person">juristische Personen</ref>) und was als Eigentum gelten
+                           soll (persönliche Habe, Produktionsmittel, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geistiges_Eigentum">geistiges Eigentum</ref> jeweils ja oder nein).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In vielen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verfassung">Verfassungen</ref> der Moderne, wird der Eigentumsschutz als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundrecht">Grundrecht</ref> behandelt, d.h. die Verfassung enthält den Schutz
+                           des Eigentums als Prinzip, ohne dessen inhaltliche Ausprägung zu
+                              bestimmen.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f7" rend="ref"/> Der materiale Gehalt der mit dem Eigentum verbundenen
+                           Rechte und Pflichten sowie der Grenzen des Eigentumsgebrauchs wird der
+                           Festlegung in den Einzelgesetzen überlassen.</s>
+                  <s>Hierzu gehört auch die Festlegung des Umfangs der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialpflichtigkeit_des_Eigentums">Sozialpflichtigkeit des Eigentums</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>So eine konstitutionelle Regelung ermöglicht die
+                           inhaltliche Fortschreibung des Eigentumsbegriffs innerhalb von Gesetzen
+                           entsprechend veränderter gesellschaftlicher Verhältnisse und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wertvorstellung">Wertvorstellungen</ref>, ohne dass in das Verfassungsprinzip als
+                           solches eingegriffen werden muss.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f8" rend="ref"/> Merkmale des Eigentums sind
+                           nicht nur die Zuordnung eines Gegenstandes zu einer Person und die
+                           beliebige Verfügungsmacht, sondern auch die Grenzziehung durch die
+                           jeweilige Eigentumsordnung.</s>
+                  <s>„Wenn man vom Inhalt des Eigentums spricht, so liegt dem
+                           die Vorstellung zugrunde, dass die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsordnung">Rechtsordnung</ref> festlegt, inwieweit der Eigentümer Eingriffe in
+                           sein Recht gestatten muss, das heißt, dass das Eigentum erst durch die
+                           Eingriffsnormen Konturen gewinnt.</s>
+                  <s>Erst diese konstituieren das Eigentum als rechtsinhaltliches
+                              Gebilde.“<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f9" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Geschichte </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Bei der Betrachtung der Eigentumstheorien in der Geschichte sind
+                           die wirtschaftlichen, rechtlichen und politischen Rahmenbedingungen der
+                           jeweiligen Zeit von Bedeutung.</s>
+                  <s>Die Verfasser hatten ein bestimmtes Weltbild bzw.
+                           Gesellschaftsmodell vor Augen und wollten in der Regel nicht nur das
+                           Phänomen des Eigentums erklären und begründen, sondern beabsichtigten
+                           häufig im Rahmen weiter gespannter <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_Theorie">politischer Theorien</ref> ein Idealbild zu entwerfen
+                           und auf die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung Einfluss zu nehmen.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Antike </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die überlieferte Reflexion über die Bedeutung von Eigentum
+                              beginnt mit den Werken von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon">Platon</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoteles">Aristoteles</ref> im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikes_Griechenland">antiken Griechenland</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Die Gesellschaft in dieser Zeit war noch ganz überwiegend
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landwirtschaft">landwirtschaftlich</ref> organisiert.</s>
+                  <s>Selbst in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polis">Polis</ref> von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athen">Athen</ref> waren mehr als dreiviertel der
+                              Bevölkerung in der Landwirtschaft tätig.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f10" rend="ref"/> Die Gesellschaft wurde vom <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adel">Adel</ref> und von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fgrundbesitzer">Großgrundbesitzern</ref> dominiert, wenn auch die
+                              Reformen des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleisthenes_von_Athen">Kleisthenes</ref> den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrger">Bürgern</ref> eine Beteiligung an den Entscheidungen der Polis
+                              ermöglicht hatten.</s>
+                  <s>Gesellschaftlicher und ökonomischer Kern waren die
+                              Familienhaushalte (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikos">Oikos</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Zu diesem Haushalt gehörten auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklaverei">Sklaven</ref>, die man kaufte oder die im Laufe der
+                              Kolonialisierung nach Athen gelangt waren.</s>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schuldsklaverei">Schuldsklaverei</ref> war durch die Gesetze <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon">Solons</ref> abgeschafft worden.</s>
+                  <s>Im Oikos war alles dem Hausvater untergeordnet, der über das
+                              gesamte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verm%C3%B6gen_%28Wirtschaft%29">Vermögen</ref>, Frau, Kinder sowie Sklaven die Rechte
+                              des Eigentümers ausübte, aber auch die Verantwortung für ihr
+                              Wohlergehen hatte.</s>
+                  <s>Eine Besonderheit war die Gesellschaftsordnung in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta">Sparta</ref>, wo der Grundbesitz durch Los zugeteilt wurde und
+                              unveräußerlich war.</s>
+                  <s>Statt Gold und Silber wurde Eisen als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geld">Geld</ref> verwendet, und es gab Gemeinschaftsspeisungen der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartiaten">Spartiaten</ref> (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syssitien">Syssitien</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AJustinian_Byzanz.png">miniatur|Römer und Germanen am Ende der
+                                 Spätantike</ref> Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_der_Antike">antiken griechischen Philosophen</ref> waren stark in
+                              der Gemeinschaft aller <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freie">freien</ref> Bürger innerhalb der Polis verankert.</s>
+                  <s>Daran und an der Vorstellung einer Einbindung des Menschen in
+                              einen harmonisch geordneten Kosmos orientierten sie ihr Nachdenken
+                              über das <hi rend="it">gute Leben</hi>.</s>
+                  <s>Die moderne, auf Freiheit ausgerichtete Perspektive des
+                              Individualismus war ihnen fremd.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f11" rend="ref"/> Während sich die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophisten">Sophisten</ref> und auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokrates">Sokrates</ref> noch aktiv am politischen Diskurs beteiligten,
+                              konzentrierten sich Platon und Aristoteles auf die Lehre und die
+                              Ausarbeitung ihrer Theorien.</s>
+                  <s>Bei Platon stand die Frage nach der richtigen Ordnung in der
+                              Gemeinschaft im Vordergrund, die er mit der Konzeption eines idealen
+                                 <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staat">Staates</ref> beantwortete.</s>
+                  <s>Die Rolle des Einzelnen war dabei kaum von Bedeutung.</s>
+                  <s>Die Verfassung des Eigentums ist an die Struktur der
+                              gesellschaftlichen Ordnung gebunden.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerechtigkeit">Gerechtigkeit</ref> entsteht durch richtiges <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handeln">Handeln</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Aristoteles beurteilte die Erziehbarkeit des Menschen
+                              skeptischer.</s>
+                  <s>Er versuchte, aus dem Gegebenen rechte Strukturen und Regeln
+                              zu entwickeln, die allgemein verbindlich werden sollen.</s>
+                  <s>Eigentum ist demnach eine Frage des zweckmäßigen, auf
+                              Vernunft beruhenden menschlichen Denkens und Handelns.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die im <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenismus">Hellenismus</ref> folgende Philosophie wurde beeinflusst von den
+                              Großreichen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe">Alexanders</ref> und <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Reich">Roms</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Wenn auch die Städte in ihrer inneren Verwaltung weitgehend
+                              unberührt blieben, wurde das sozial und politisch bedeutsame Umfeld
+                              wesentlich größer und komplexer.</s>
+                  <s>Einen unmittelbaren Einfluss der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophenschule">philosophischen Schulen</ref> auf die Politik gab es
+                              nicht mehr.</s>
+                  <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa">Stoa</ref> konzentrierte sich dementsprechend auf die
+                              persönliche Haltung des Einzelnen, dem sie zu einer <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmopolitismus">kosmopolitischen</ref>, von der Vernunft und von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelassenheit">Gelassenheit</ref> geleiteten Lebenshaltung riet.</s>
+                  <s>In der Römischen Republik traten, was die Regelung des
+                              Eigentums betrifft, rechtliche Fragen in den Vordergrund.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Platon </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>[[Datei:Plato Pio-Clemetino Inv305.jpg|miniatur|Platon im
+                                    <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatikanische_Museen">Museo Pio-Clementino</ref>]] Platons
+                                 Auseinandersetzung mit dem Eigentum in der <hi rend="it">
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeia">Politeia</ref>
+                     </hi> bezieht sich nicht auf die tatsächlich vorhandene
+                                 Gesellschaft, sondern ist der als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopie">Utopie</ref> dort bezeichnete Entwurf eines <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerechtigkeit">gerechten</ref>, gelingenden Staates als Analogie
+                                 zur gerechten, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonie">glücksorientierten</ref>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seele">Seele</ref> – also ein Gegenentwurf zu den realen
+                                 Verhältnissen.</s>
+                  <s>In diesem idealen Staat nimmt jede erwachsene Person die
+                                 ihr angemessene Position ein.</s>
+                  <s>So gibt es den Nährstand der Handwerker und Bauern, die
+                                 auch in diesem Staat über Eigentum verfügen.</s>
+                  <s>Den Zusammenhalt des Staates gewährleisten die Wächter
+                                 (Wehrstand).</s>
+                  <s>Diese haben kein Eigentum, weil das Streben nach Eigentum
+                                 nicht der Gemeinschaft dient.</s>
+                  <s>Die Wächter erhalten vielmehr ihr Auskommen von der
+                                 Gesellschaft, und im Gegenzug ist ihr gesamter Lebensbereich, auch
+                                 die Wohnung, der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich.</s>
+                  <s>Auch die Philosophen (Lehrstand), die für Platon nach
+                                 Erziehung und Ausbildung geeignet sind, den Staat zu leiten,
+                                 bleiben ohne Besitz.</s>
+                  <s>In seinem Spätwerk, den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomoi">Nomoi</ref>, setzte sich Platon mit der Frage auseinander, wie
+                                 die staatliche Ordnung einer noch zu gründenden Kolonie aussehen
+                                 sollte.</s>
+                  <s>Hier rückte er von seinem Ideal ab und sah eine Verteilung
+                                 des Grundbesitzes vor.</s>
+                  <s>Diese ist allerdings gleichmäßig, und der Boden kann nicht
+                                 verkauft, sondern nur vererbt oder an einen anderen ohne
+                                 Grundbesitz übertragen werden.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Aristoteles </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ähnlich wie für Platon war für seinen Schüler Aristoteles
+                                 das Ziel des menschlichen Lebens <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Gute">das Gute</ref>, nicht der Reichtum, der nur ein Mittel zur
+                                 Erreichung dieses Ziels ist.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f12" rend="ref"/> Den Erwerb von
+                                 Reichtum um seiner selbst willen, die Gelderwerbskunst (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrematistik">Chrematistik</ref>), lehnte Aristoteles ab.</s>
+                  <s>Das Institut des Eigentums entstammt nicht der natürlichen
+                                 Ordnung, sondern ist Ergebnis der menschlichen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernunft">Vernunft</ref>.</s>
+                  <s>Im ursprünglichen Oikos war Eigentum nicht
+                                 erforderlich.</s>
+                  <s>Erst als es durch ein Anwachsen der Bevölkerung zu
+                                 Spezialisierungen kam, entstand der Austausch zwischen den
+                                 Haushalten.</s>
+                  <s>In Dorfgemeinschaften und in der Polis ist individuelles
+                                 Eigentum dem gemeinschaftlichen Eigentum vorzuziehen, weil
+                                 persönliches Eigentum eine größere Sorgfalt gegenüber den Sachen
+                                 bewirkt.</s>
+                  <s>Zum zweiten entspricht Privateigentum dem Prinzip der
+                                 Leistung.</s>
+                  <s>Des Weiteren regelt Eigentum eindeutig die
+                                 Zuständigkeiten, so dass Streit vermieden werden kann.</s>
+                  <s>Persönliches Eigentum dient dem Genuss in der Gemeinschaft
+                                 und ist Voraussetzung für die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugend">Tugend</ref> der Freizügigkeit.</s>
+                  <s>Gemeineigentum ist deshalb nur dort sinnvoll, wo es
+                                 gemeinschaftlich genutzt wird und einer gemeinsamen Finanzierung
+                                 bedarf.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Römisches Reich </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die früheste Kodifizierung des Rechts im antiken <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Reich">Rom</ref> war das <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zw%C3%B6lftafelgesetz">Zwölftafelgesetz</ref>, das den Zweck hatte, die
+                                 Konflikte zwischen den grundbesitzenden <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrizier">Patriziern</ref> und den <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebejer">Plebejern</ref> zu ordnen.</s>
+                  <s>Kaufverträge wurden hier sehr formalisiert als <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libralakt">Libralakte</ref> geregelt.</s>
+                  <s>Ähnlich wie in Griechenland war die römische Gesellschaft
+                                 in Haushalten (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominium">Dominium</ref>: Eigentum, Besitzrecht)
+                                 organisiert.</s>
+                  <s>Der Hausherr, der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pater_familias">Pater familias</ref>, war uneingeschränkter
+                                 Eigentümer.</s>
+                  <s>Auch erwachsene Söhne waren nicht geschäftsfähig, wenn sie
+                                 im Haus des Vaters lebten, selbst wenn sie verheiratet waren und
+                                 Kinder hatten.</s>
+                  <s>Der Pater familias konnte seine Kinder sogar in die
+                                 Sklaverei verkaufen.</s>
+                  <s>Er konnte durch Testament sein Eigentum uneingeschränkt
+                                 vererben.</s>
+                  <s>Lag kein Testament vor, erfolgte die Erbfolge in
+                                 männlicher Linie.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AM-T-Cicero.jpg">miniatur|Cicero.</ref>
+                  </s>
+                  <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei%3AM-T-Cicero.jpg">
+                     <s>Porträtbüste von 1799 nach einem römischen Original</s>
+                  </ref>
+                  <s> Im römischen Recht gab es keine formale
+                                 Definition des Eigentumsbegriffs, wohl aber verschiedene Formen des
+                                 Eigentums.</s>
+                  <s>So wurde neben dem auf den Haushalt bezogenen Dominium das
+                                 an die Person gebundene Eigentum, die Proprietas,
+                                 unterschieden.</s>
+                  <s>Weiterhin gab es ein Teilhaberecht (ius in re aliene), das
+                                 bestimmte Nutzungen erlaubte.</s>
+                  <s>Vom Eigentum unterschieden war der Besitz (possessio).</s>
+                  <s>Grundsätzlich war Eigentum absolut in Hinblick auf Haben,
+                                 Besitz, Gebrauch und Fruchtziehung (habere possidere uti frui
+                                 licere) und unbeschränkt auch in der Luft und unter der Erde (usque
+                                 ad coelum et inferos).<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f13" rend="ref"/> Aus der Beschreibung
+                                 „meum esse aio“ (ich behaupte, dass es mein ist)
+                                 lässt sich anhand der Praxis ableiten, dass die Definition in § 903
+                                 Satz 1 BGB weitgehend mit der inhaltlichen Bestimmung zur Zeit <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero">Ciceros</ref> übereinstimmt.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f14" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Cicero setzte sich mit der Begründung von
+                                 Eigentum auseinander.</s>
+                  <s>Für ihn entsteht Privateigentum ursprünglich durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okkupation">Okkupation</ref>: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Das Land der eroberten Provinzen betrachteten
+                                 die Römer als Eigentum des römischen Volkes und begründeten hiermit
+                                 das Recht auf eine Bodensteuer (<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribut">Tribut</ref>).</s>
+                  <s>Die Römer kannten bereits ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immission">Immissionsverbot</ref> (siehe § 906 BGB), d.h. jemand konnte
+                                 sein Grundstück nicht beliebig nutzen, wenn er damit den Besitz
+                                 anderer beeinträchtigte, z.B. durch Entwässerungsgräben, deren
+                                 Wasser auf fremden Grund abfloss.<ptr target="WPD17.E51.96136-f16" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>In der Philosophenschule der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa">Stoa</ref> wurde ein an der Vernunft ausgerichtetes, maßvolles
+                                 Leben betont.</s>
+                  <s>Äußere Werte sind für ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_des_Lebens">sinnvolles Leben</ref> nachrangig.</s>
+                  <s>Reichtum galt als kein geeigneter Maßstab für die
+                                 Bedeutung und Würde eines Menschen, die unabhängig von Stand und
+                                 Herkunft wesensgleich sind.</s>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca">Seneca</ref> hat diese Haltung deutlich beschrieben: </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Reichtum entsteht vor allem aus Habgier und
+                                 ist Ursache für manche Übel.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="fix2">
+               <head type="cross">
+                  <s> Patristik </s>
+               </head>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
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+                     URL:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmatisierung: Wikipedia, 2017 [Extract]</title>
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+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
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+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="0" type="section">
+               <p>
+                  <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+               </p>
+               <p> Unter <hi rend="bo">Stigmatisierung</hi> wird in der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie">Soziologie</ref> ein Prozess verstanden, durch den Individuen bestimmte
+                     andere Individuen in eine bestimmte Kategorie von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Position">Positions</ref>­inhabern einordnen, </p>
+               <list type="ul">
+                  <item> durch Zuschreibung von Merkmalen und Eigenschaften, die diskreditierbar
+                        sind; </item>
+                  <item> durch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskreditierung">Diskreditierung</ref> von Merkmalen und Eigenschaften, die
+                        diskreditierbar sind; </item>
+                  <item> durch Diskreditierung bereits vorhandener, sichtbarer Merkmale und
+                           Eigenschaften.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f1" rend="ref"/>
+                     <ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f2" rend="ref"/>
+                  </item>
+               </list>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Wenn eine Person oder eine Gruppe von Personen von anderen durch
+                        gesellschaftlich oder gruppenspezifisch negativ bewertete Merkmale
+                        charakterisiert werden, werden sie dadurch in sozialer Hinsicht <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskriminierung">diskriminiert</ref>.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Ein <hi rend="bo">Stigma</hi> (<gap reason="template" instant="false"/> für <hi rend="it">Stich</hi>, <hi rend="it">Wundmal</hi>) ist eine unerwünschte Andersheit gegenüber dem,
+                        was wir erwartet hätten.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f3" rend="ref"/> Ein Stigma ist eine Verallgemeinerung
+                        einer spezifischen Handlung oder Eigenheit einer Person auf deren
+                        Gesamtcharakter.</s>
+                  <s>Dabei bewirkt das Stigma einen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialer_Status">Status</ref> der Person, der gegenüber ihren übrigen Eigenschaften
+                        hervorsticht.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>
+                     <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erving_Goffman">Erving Goffman</ref> betrachtete Stigma als Beispiel für die Kluft
+                        zwischen dem, was eine Person sein sollte (ihrer virtuellen sozialen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Identit%C3%A4t">Identität</ref>), und ihrer wirklichen sozialen Identität,
+                        d. h.</s>
+                  <s>was sie wirklich ist.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f4" rend="ref"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Beschreibung </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Zur Stigmatisierung gedacht waren ursprünglich echte <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibesstrafe">Leibesstrafen</ref> zum Zweck der öffentlichen Ächtung, wie bis in
+                           die Neuzeit hinein das Scheren der Haare (für Hurerei) oder des Bartes
+                           oder das Abschneiden der Ohren (für Ehrverlust), heute noch manchenorts
+                           im Rechtskreis der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schari%27a">Scharia</ref> das Abschlagen einer Hand (für
+                           Diebstahl).</s>
+                     <s>In Frankreich wurden Galeerensträflinge oder Deportierte mit der
+                           französischen Lilie lebenslang gebrandmarkt.</s>
+                     <s>Ein bekanntes Beispiel des 20. Jahrhunderts war während der Zeit
+                           des <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalsozialismus">Nationalsozialismus</ref> die Kennzeichnung von
+                           Häftlingen in mehreren <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konzentrationslager">Konzentrationslagern</ref> durch Eintätowierung einer
+                           Häftlingsnummer auf dem linken Arm.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Das soziale Stigma als Brandmal kennzeichnet somit
+                           ein Auffälligkeitsmerkmal, das als Ausdruck der Abwertung Einzelner oder
+                           von Gruppen Ursache und Folge <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Randgruppe">sozialer Randständigkeit</ref> sein kann.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Daher sind in der Regel sogenannte Randgruppen
+                           betroffen, die gemeinsame, negativ bewertete <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merkmal">Merkmale</ref> haben, durch die sie von anderen Mitgliedern der
+                           Gesellschaft unterschieden werden (siehe auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorurteil">Vorurteil</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klischee">Klischee</ref>).</s>
+                     <s>Daraus ergibt sich ein <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teufelskreis">Teufelskreis</ref>: Randgruppen werden stigmatisiert, Stigmatisierung
+                           führt zu <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausgrenzung">Ausgrenzung</ref> und Randgruppenbildung.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erving_Goffman">Erving Goffman</ref> vermutet, dass die Stigmatisierungsprozesse
+                           „eine allgemeine gesellschaftliche Funktion haben – nämlich
+                           Unterstützung für die Gesellschaft bei denen einzuholen, welche nicht von
+                           der Gesellschaft unterstützt werden.“<ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f5" rend="ref"/>
+                           Es ist eine Reaktion auf nicht erfüllte Normerwartungen, da dadurch die
+                           gemeinsamen Normen weit jenseits derer, die sie voll erfüllen,
+                           aufrechterhalten werden können.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f6" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Beispiele für soziale Stigmata waren oder sind das
+                           Vorliegen von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorstrafe">Vorstrafen</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdachlosigkeit">Obdachlosigkeit</ref>, körperliche oder geistige <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behinderung_%28Sozialrecht%29">Behinderungen</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychische_St%C3%B6rung">psychische Störungen</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krankheit">Krankheiten</ref> (z. B.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepra">Lepra</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV">HIV</ref>/<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS">AIDS</ref>),
+                           aber auch die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexuelle_Orientierung">sexuelle Orientierung</ref> oder die Zugehörigkeit zu
+                           einer bestimmten <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalit%C3%A4t">Nationalität</ref>, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion">Religion</ref> oder <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksgruppe">Volksgruppe</ref> – wie dies oft für „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigeuner">Zigeuner</ref>“ galt.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Auf <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikt%3Asubtil">subtilere</ref> Weise wird auch bereits die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armut">Armut</ref>
+                           zum sozialen Stigma, wenn sie etwa als mangelnde <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leistungsbereitschaft">Leistungsbereitschaft</ref> charakterisiert wird, wenn
+                           die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schuld_%28Ethik%29">Schuld</ref> für Armut alleine in einem persönlichen
+                           Versagen gesucht wird, wenn Betroffenen projektiv ein Ausruhen in der
+                           deutlich ideologisch postulierten, jedoch tatsächlich inexistenten
+                           ‚sozialen Hängematte‘ unterstellt wird, etwa bei <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeitslosigkeit">Arbeitslosen</ref>.</s>
+                     <s>Sichtbares Merkmal ist dabei etwa die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleidung">Kleidung</ref> der Betroffenen, an der der <hi rend="it">soziale
+                              Status</hi> für jeden ablesbar ist (siehe auch <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie">Soziologie</ref>).</s>
+                     <s>Dieser sichtbaren Stigmatisierung wollte etwa die Arbeiter-<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jugendkultur">Jugendkultur</ref> der <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod_%28Subkultur%29">Mods</ref> in England entgegenwirken, indem demonstrativ
+                           teure Kleidung getragen und die Oberschicht imitiert wurde.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Die <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menschenrecht">Menschenrechte</ref> in der Tradition der europäischen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%C3%A4rung">Aufklärung</ref> widersprechen u. a. der Stigmatisierung von Personen
+                           und sollen ihr entgegenwirken.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Stigmaforschung </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>In der Stigmaforschung werden die Prozesse erforscht, die zur
+                           Stigmatisierung führen.</s>
+                     <s>Hierbei wird grundsätzlich zwischen Stigmatisierung auf
+                           gesellschaftlicher und auf individueller Ebene unterschieden.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Als Verfahren zur Feststellung von
+                           Stigmatisierungen hat sich die Messung der erwünschten „<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Distanz">sozialen Distanz</ref>“ als häufig angewandte Methode bewährt:
+                           Die untersuchten Personen werden danach befragt, ob sie jemanden mit dem
+                           spezifischen Stigmatisierungsmerkmal (z. B.</s>
+                     <s>einer psychischen Erkrankung) als Mieter, Nachbarn oder
+                           Babysitter akzeptieren würden.</s>
+                     <s>Vertiefend wird gefragt, ob die befragte Person in eine Familie
+                           einheiraten würde, in der Menschen mit dem spezifischen
+                           Stigmatisierungsmerkmal leben, oder ob die untersuchte Person solche
+                           Menschen in ihren sozialen Kreis aufnehmen würde oder als Mitarbeiter
+                           empfehlen würde.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die
+                           Stigmatisierung psychisch Kranker in <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria">Nigeria</ref> und Deutschland ergaben, dass Stigmatisierungen in
+                           Deutschland wesentlich seltener zu erwarten sind als in Nigeria, was auf
+                           den besseren Informationsstand über diese Krankheiten in Deutschland
+                           zurückzuführen sein könnte.</s>
+                     <s>Andererseits weisen Untersuchungsergebnisse einer Zürcher
+                           Forschungsgruppe darauf hin, dass sich auch die besonders gut über die
+                           Sachverhalte informierten Fachleute in ihrem Antwortverhalten bezüglich
+                           sozialer Distanz kaum von der Durchschnittsbevölkerung unterscheiden.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Ergebnisse haben kritische Fragen nach dem Rollenbild und
+                           der Funktion von <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiater">Psychiatern</ref> in der Verhütung und Bekämpfung von
+                           Stigmatisierungen psychisch Kranker bestärkt.<ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f7" rend="ref"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Begriffsgeschichte </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im christlichen (insbesondere katholischem) Umfeld bezeichnet
+                              <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmatisation">Stigmatisation</ref> das Tragen der Wundmale Christi
+                           (Stigmata).</s>
+                     <s>An verschiedenen <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallfahrtsort">Wallfahrtsorten</ref>, wo Christusstatuen verehrt werden, soll es hin
+                           und wieder zu Wundern kommen, indem die Stigmata angeblich zu bluten
+                           anfangen.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Nach Goffman, der den Begriff
+                           „Stigma“ wesentlich geprägt hat, lässt sich der Begriff wie
+                           folgt herleiten: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="it">Die Griechen [...] schufen den Begriff Stigma als Verweis
+                              auf körperliche Zeichen, die dazu bestimmt waren, etwas Ungewöhnliches
+                              oder Schlechtes über den moralischen Zustand des Zeichenträgers zu
+                              offenbaren.</hi>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f8" rend="ref"/> Diese Zeichen waren, gebrannt oder in den Körper geschnitten, sofort
+                           erkennbar, was eine schnelle und eindeutige Zuordnung als Stigmatisierter
+                           ermöglichte, also als eine <hi rend="it">rituell für unrein erklärte
+                              Person, die gemieden werden sollte</hi>
+                        <ptr target="WPD17.S00.46025-f9" rend="ref"/> (Sklave, Verbrecher, Verräter).</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Im Christentum wurde die Bedeutung des Begriffes um
+                           Zweierlei erweitert: </s>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ol">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> als Zeichen göttlicher Gnade, die in Form von
+                              Blumen auf der Haut aufbrachen, </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Bezug auf körperliche Zeichen physischer
+                              Unstimmigkeit.</s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Heute wird „Stigma“ wieder annähernd
+                           an seine ursprüngliche Bedeutung gebraucht, aber stärker auf die Un<ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehre">ehre</ref>
+                           selbst bezogen als auf deren körperliche Erscheinungen.</s>
+                     <s>Auch haben sich die Arten von Unehre verändert.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Siehe auch </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intoleranz">Intoleranz</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lookism">Lookism</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ressentiment">Ressentiment</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotyp">Stereotyp</ref>
+                        </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blau%C3%A4ugig_%281996%29">Blauäugig</ref> (Dokumentarfilm) </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross">
+                     <s> Literatur </s>
+                  </head>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Michaela Amering / Margit Schmolke: <hi rend="it">Recovery.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Das Ende der Unheilbarkeit</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>, Psychiatrie-Verlag, Bonn 2007, ISBN
+                              978-3-88414-421-3 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Brusten">Manfred Brusten</ref> / Jürgen Hohmeier (Hgg.): <ref target="http://bidok.uibk.ac.at/library/stigmatisierung-index.html"/> – Luchterhand Verlag, Darmstadt 1975 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Asmus Finzen: <hi rend="it">Psychose und
+                                 Stigma: Stigmabewältigung – zum Umgang mit Vorurteilen und
+                                 Schuldzuweisungen</hi>, Psychiatrie-Verlag, Bonn 2000 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s> Wolfgang Gaebel, <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_M%C3%B6ller">Hans-Jürgen Möller</ref>, Wulf Rössler (Hgg.): <hi rend="it">Stigma – Diskriminierung –
+                                 Bewältigung.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Der Umgang mit sozialer Ausgrenzung psychisch Kranker</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2004 </s>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <s>
+                           <ref target="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erving_Goffman">Erving Goffman</ref>: <hi rend="it">Stigma.</hi>
+                        </s>
+                        <hi rend="it">
+                           <s>Über Techniken der Bewältigung beschädigter Identität</s>
+                        </hi>
+                        <s>, Frankfurt am Main, 1967 [engl. Orig. 1963]
+                           </s>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Weblinks </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="template" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <list type="ul">
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://bidok.uibk.ac.at/library/loesel-stigmatisierung.html">Lösel: Prozesse der Stigmatisierung in der Schule</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.avert.org/aidsstigma.htm">Stigma,
+                              discrimination and attitudes to HIV</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://www.anti-stigma.de/html/stigmatisierung%20%20bekampfen.htm">Stigmatisierung bekämpfen</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://de.oocities.com/omikron23/doublebind.html">Double-Bind und Mystifizierung</ref>
+                     </item>
+                     <item>
+                        <ref target="http://alex-sk.jimdo.com/ronald-d-laing-mystifizierung-konfusion-und-konflikt/">Ronald D. Laing: Mystifizierung, Konfusion und
+                              Konflikt</ref>
+                     </item>
+                  </list>
+               </div>
+               <div n="2" type="section">
+                  <head type="cross"> Quellen </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <gap reason="references" instant="false"/>
+                  </p>
+                  <p> </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LSO.TBA.00001">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LSO/TBA.00001 Tempel, Bernhard: Alkohol und Eugenik. Ein Versuch über Gerhart Hauptmanns künstlerisches Selbstverständnis. - Dresden, 2010 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Tempel, Bernhard</author>
+                  <title>Alkohol und Eugenik</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Dresden</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Thelem</publisher>
+                  <date when="2010">2010</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Social_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+            <particDesc>
+               <person>
+                  <sex>M</sex>
+                  <occupation>UKNOWN</occupation>
+               </person>
+            </particDesc>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">Einleitung</head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Zwischen Alkohol und Kunst besteht bereits in der Antike eine enge Verbindung.</s>
+                  <s>Ohne berauschende Getränke etwa sind die dionysischen Mysterien nicht denkbar, aus denen sich die griechische Tragödie entwickelt, und das Lob des Weins als Gegenstand der Dichtung gehört zum festen Bestand der Lyrik seit dem ionischen Dichter Anakreon, dessen Tod in hohem Alter die Legende darauf zurückführt, daß er sich an einer vertrockneten Weinbeere verschluckte und erstickte.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Die phantasiebefeuernde Wirkung des Alkohols, und das heißt zunächst vor allem des Weins, ist ein Topos der Dichtung und der ihr eingeschriebenen Poetik, wie ein Blick in einschlägige Anthologien zeigt; beispielhaft sei verwiesen auf die Zitate am Anfang des von Hans-Jörg Koch besorgten Buchs über die Muse Wein sowie auf das von Curt Sigmar Gutkind und Karl Wolfskehl herausgegebene Buch vom Wein, für das sich auch Gerhart Hauptmann interessierte und das eine Fülle von Beispielen für die Verehrung des Weins (nebst gelegentlichen Warnungen vor seiner die Sinne betörenden Wirkung) bietet.</s>
+                  <s>Wesentliche Motive finden sich in nuce in den Auszügen aus Yorick’s Meditations upon Various Interesting and Important Subjects, die Koch seinem Buch als Motto voranstellt: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> Inzwischen hat sich ein ganzer Fundus an griffigen Bildern für die Bedeutung von Alkohol und Drogen überhaupt als »Treibstoff« für Literatur- und Kunstproduktion entwickelt.</s>
+                  <s>»Potente Gehirne aber stärken sich nicht durch Milch, sondern durch Alkaloide«, erklärte Gottfried Benn 1943 in Provoziertes Leben apodiktisch; von der »Muse aus der Flasche« spricht Alexander Kupfer in seiner 
+            <pb n="10"/>1996 publizierten Studie Die Künstlichen Paradiese, und Michael Krüger bringt den Zusammenhang von Alkoholrausch und Kunst gar auf die knappe Formel: »Wer schreibt, trinkt auch. [ . . . ] Ein Alkoholnebel liegt über der Weltliteratur.«  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Gemessen an mehr als zwei Jahrtausenden Lob des Weins ist die Darstellung der dunklen Seiten des Alkohols in der Literatur deutlich jüngeren Datums.</s>
+                  <s>Erst die spätmittelalterliche Literatur thematisiert gelegentlich das übermäßige Trinken an den Höfen, schließlich entsteht eine satirische Trinkliteratur, die im 16. Jahrhundert mit Johann Fischarts »grotesker Trunkenlitanei im 8. Gargantuakapitel ihren Höhepunkt erreichte«.</s>
+                  <s>Dabei zeigen die ausführlichen Schilderungen von Trinkexzessen selbst in denjenigen Schriften, die schon im Kontext des klerikalen Kampfs »Wider den Saufteufel« (Matthäus Friderich, 1551) stehen, bereits jene Ambivalenz von Ablehnung und Faszination, die den Verlauf der Kulturgeschichte des Alkohols fortan prägen wird.</s>
+                  <s>Mit Beginn der Aufklärung gerät der Alkoholrausch dann in Widerspruch zum Ideal der nüchternen Vernunft, gerade auch in Bezug auf die künstlerische Produktion.</s>
+                  <s>Nach Alexander Kupfer hielt beispielsweise »ein Aufklärer wie Kant die Vorstellung eines positiven Bezuges zwischen Rausch und Kreativität für baren Unsinn«.</s>
+                  <s>Selbst Goethe, dessen kontinuierlich hoher Weinverbrauch bekannt ist, erklärte gegenüber Eckermann, Schiller habe »nie viel getrunken«, doch schon der mäßige Alkoholkonsum sei der Gesundheit des Kollegen abträglich und dessen »Produktionen selbst schädlich« gewesen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Bedeutende Breitenwirkung erreichte das Postulat eines künstlerischen Nutzens von Drogen vor allem seit Beginn der (europäischen) Romantik und prägt seitdem auch den Außenblick auf künstlerisches Produzieren.</s>
+                  <s>Am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts kann die Psychiatrie auf so viele alkohol- und drogengeschädigte Künstler zurückblicken, daß die Verbindung von Genie und Krankheit zum Topos geworden ist.</s>
+                  <s>In den 1930 verfaßten Essays Das Genieproblem und Genie und Gesundheit geht Gottfried Benn, Dichter mit dem Brotberuf des Arztes, darauf ein.</s>
+                  <s>Goethes täglichen Konsum von ein bis zwei Flaschen Wein läßt er als »bürgerliche Flüssigkeitsaufnahme« durchgehen, um dann aber nach Wilhelm Lange-Eichbaums wirkmächtigem Buch Genie – Irrsinn und Ruhm eine lange Reihe von »genialen Persönlichkeiten« aufzuzählen, die das »Trinken mit der erklärten Absicht des 
+            <pb n="11"/>Rauschs« pflegten und von denen ein erheblicher Teil im 19. Jahrhundert gewirkt hat: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> Als der Psychiater C. F. van Vleuten 1906 eine Umfrage zum Verhältnis von dichterischer Arbeit und Alkohol unter 150 Schriftstellern durchführte und die Antworten im Literarischen Echo publizierte, begründete er die Wahl seines Untersuchungsgegenstandes allerdings nicht mit einer besonderen Anfälligkeit dieser Berufsgruppe für Alkoholabhängigkeit, sondern mit deren Neigung zu intensiver »Selbstbeobachtung«.</s>
+                  <s>Daß Alkoholismus im Englischen als »writer’s disease« bezeichnet werde, scheint erst eine Folge des im letzten Drittel des 20. Jahrhunderts verstärkten Interesses von Psychiatrie und Literaturwissenschaft am Thema »Alkohol und Autor« zu sein.</s>
+                  <s>So heißt es in Tom Dardis’ Studie über die ›durstige Muse‹ der amerikanischen Schriftsteller: »The presence of the disease in so many of our notable writers surely makes it appear that alcoholism is the American writer’s disease.« 
+            <pb n="12"/>
+                  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Kein Zufall ist es daher wohl auch, daß sich vor allem Amerikanistik und Anglistik des Themas angenommen haben, zumal sich Alkoholismus einer Bestandsaufnahme des amerikanischen Psychiaters und Anglisten Donald W. Goodwin zufolge unter Schriftstellern des höchsten Niveaus als wahre Epidemie erweise: 
+            <gap instant="false"/> Die Lust an der Pointe und ein vorrangig psychiatrisches Interesse führen Goodwin die Feder, der sich deshalb überwiegend auf biographische Zeugnisse stützt und die Werke der betrachteten Autoren hauptsächlich als Quelle für deren Pathographie heranzieht.</s>
+                  <s>Aus literaturwissenschaftlicher Sicht kritisiert Thomas B. Gilmore diesen Ansatz; auch die Biographie eines dem Alkohol zugeneigten Autors könne erst aufgrund seines Werks allgemeineres Interesse beanspruchen, und biographische Betrachtung, die das Trinken nicht in Beziehung zum Werk setze, bleibe für die Literaturgeschichte belanglos, bestenfalls anekdotisch.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Entsprechend betont James Nicholls, daß das Trinken ein mächtiges erzählerisches Mittel sei (»Drink is, without doubt, a powerful narrative device«), und 
+            <pb n="13"/>weist auf die doppelte Perspektive hin, unter der man literarische Gestaltungen des Trinkens betrachten könne: als Funktion des Alkohols in der Fiktion, und wie die Fiktion das real existierende Trinken darstelle (»how alcohol functions within fictions as about how fictions represent drink«).</s>
+                  <s>Noch weiter auf den Zusammenhang von Gegenstand und Form zugespitzt: »Drunkenness can be both the subject of literary representation and a phenomenological condition that informs the very nature of literature itself.«  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Vor »allzuviel Vollmundigkeit« beim »Wechselspiel zwischen Spirituellem und Spirituösem« warnt der Anglist und Schriftsteller Ulrich Horstmann, der vier »mögliche Interaktionszonen zwischen Alkohol und Literatur« unterscheidet.</s>
+                  <s>Darstellungen von Trinkern in der Literatur gehörten häufig zum »Stereotypenarsenal« und ließen daher nicht notwendigerweise auf das Verhältnis ihrer Autoren zum Alkohol schließen.</s>
+                  <s>Von geringem Interesse für das Thema seien auch jene Autoren, deren Alkoholabhängigkeit der Öffentlichkeit unbekannt sei und die »jede direkte Aussage zum Zusammenhang von Trinkzwang und Schreibimpuls verweigern«.</s>
+                  <s>Den hohen Anteil an Trinkern in der modernen Kunst erklärt Horstmann als eine »seltsame Überbietungslogik« seit dem späten 19. Jahrhundert, die in Analogie zu den stereotypen Trinkerdarstellungen in der Literatur das Klischee des Alkoholismus als Grundlage der Kunst und den »Mythos der Spiegelsymmetrie von Abusus und Originalität« kultiviere.</s>
+                  <s>Übrig blieben jene wenigen »Kunsttrinker«, bei denen der Alkohol wirklich »vom Störfaktor zur Produktivkraft, von der lähmenden Droge zum Elixier« werde und »der Autor nicht mehr hin- und hergerissen ist zwischen Stupor und Ausnüchterung, Konzentration und Konzentrat, sondern synergetisch mit dem Genußgift arbeitet, statt dagegen anzukämpfen«; als Beispiele führt Horstmann E. T. A. Hoffmann, Jack London, Joseph Roth, Malcolm Lowry und Wenedikt Jerofejew an.</s>
+                  <s>Die vorliegende Studie verdankt ihre Anregung zwar teilweise der Lektüre von Goodwins biographischen Skizzen, setzt jedoch mit der Konzentration auf einen einzigen Autor und sein literarisches Werk einen anderen Schwerpunkt.</s>
+                  <s>Die Bedeutung des Alkohols in Werk und Leben Gerhart Hauptmanns ist nicht ganz 
+            <pb n="14"/>unbekannt, jedoch sind beide Aspekte meist voneinander unabhängig betrachtet worden.</s>
+                  <s>Zeitgenossen und Biographen haben die Trinkfreudigkeit dieses Autors durchaus zur Kenntnis genommen.</s>
+                  <s>In den dreißig Anekdoten um Hauptmann, die Gerhard Eckert zusammengetragen hat, spielt allein in sechs der Alkohol eine Rolle; eine von ihnen beginnt mit der Bemerkung, wenn »eine Tatsache aus dem Alltag« des Dichters »unzweideutig erhärtet« sei, dann »seine Neigung für den Genuß von Burgunder.«  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Am Anfang seiner Laufbahn als naturalistischer Schriftsteller steht Hauptmann jedoch nicht in der Tradition der durch Alkohol und andere Rauschdrogen inspirierten romantischen und nachromantischen Dichter, sondern wird zum Mitbegründer der deutschen »Fuselpoesie« in einem kritischen Sinne.</s>
+                  <s>Historischer Hintergrund ist die Alkoholfrage als soziales Problem, das etwa gleichzeitig mit der Aufwertung des Rauschs als Inspirationsquelle aufkam, nachdem sich bis Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts die sogenannte »Branntweinpest« entwickelt hatte, als Kollateralschaden der Industrialisierung, begünstigt durch die Möglichkeit, Alkohol aus billigen Kartoffeln statt aus teurem Getreide zu gewinnen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Literatur des europäischen Naturalismus reagierte auf die sozialen Verwerfungen und griff die Alkoholfrage als Motiv auf; prominentestes Beispiel ist Émile Zolas 1877 erschienener Roman L’Assommoir (dt. Der Totschläger).</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Zu Recht hat sich die Hauptmann-Philologie daher überwiegend mit der Thematisierung des Alkohols im Werk des Dichters beschäftigt, vor allem in Vor Sonnenaufgang und den frühen naturalistischen Dramen.</s>
+                  <s>Besondere Erwähnung 
+            <pb n="15"/>verdient Hermann Barnstorffs 1938 erschienenes Buch, weil es die ausführlichste Aufzählung von Vorkommen des Alkoholmotivs in Hauptmanns bis dahin veröffentlichtem Werk enthält.</s>
+                  <s>Der Autor geht ein auf die zahlreichen Gründe für das Trinken, auf Folgen des Trinkens und durch den Alkohol verursachte Schäden sowie des Dichters Fähigkeit, physiologische Folgen des Alkohols exakt zu schildern.</s>
+                  <s>Hauptmann wolle durch »andauernde Hinweise auf die bösen Folgen des Trinkens [ . . . ] die Menschen aufklären, warnen und bessern« und zeige »großes Mitgefühl für die Menschen, die unter Trunksucht leiden«.</s>
+                  <s>Es sei aber auch eine Wandlung in seiner »Einstellung zur Alkoholfrage« zu erkennen: Sittliche Entrüstung und Mitgefühl ließen im Alterswerk nach, und soviel in den späten Werken Das Meerwunder, Hamlet in Wittenberg und Im Wirbel der Berufung auch getrunken werde: »nie wird daraus eine Anklage gemacht«.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Als besonders aufschlußreich erweist sich der Fall Hauptmann durch die Verbindung von Alkohol und Eugenik zu einem Motivkomplex.</s>
+                  <s>Der von Francis Galton 1883 eingeführte Begriff ›Eugenik‹ wird hier verwendet im allgemeinen Sinne einer Erbgesundheitspflege, die erst durch die Darwinsche Entwicklungslehre möglich wurde: als Versuch, »durch geschickte Ausnutzung der Gesetzmäßigkeiten der natürlichen Auslese« die Evolution der Menschheit gezielt zu beeinflussen.</s>
+                  <s>Hauptmann selbst dürfte eher die spätestens 1895 von seinem Jugendfreund Alfred Ploetz (1860–1940) geprägte Eindeutschung der Eugenik als »Rassenhygiene« gekannt haben.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Die Eugeniker gingen von einer degenerierenden Wirkung des Alkohols aus; der Motivkomplex von Alkohol und Eugenik ist also bereits in der außerliterarischen Wirklichkeit angelegt.</s>
+                  <s>Nur in Hauptmanns erstem sozialen Drama, Vor Sonnenaufgang, trägt dieser Motivkomplex ein ganzes Werk, auf einzelne Motive 
+            <pb n="16"/>aber kommt der Dichter wiederholt in späteren Texten zurück.</s>
+                  <s>Dafür lassen sich verschiedene Gründe identifizieren: Als Sohn eines Gastwirts hatte er genaue Kenntnis von Trinkgewohnheiten, Trinkertypen sowie individuellen und sozialen Folgen des Alkoholge- und -mißbrauchs; dies gehörte zum Fundus für seine realistischen Werke.</s>
+                  <s>Aufgrund der eigenen Vorliebe für alkoholische Getränke, deren kreativitätsfördernde Wirkung er häufig betont hat, währte eine kurzzeitige Faszination für die Abstinenzbewegung nicht lange und wich einer lebenslangen, zunehmend kritischen Auseinandersetzung mit den Alkoholgegnern, die ihren Höhepunkt mit dem 1941 als Reaktion auf die ›Euthanasie‹ entstandenen Märchen erreicht.</s>
+                  <s>In Alfred Ploetz sah der Dichter Abstinenzideologie und Eugenik vereint, daher wird der Freund für ihn zum Inbegriff des nüchternen, materialistischen Wissenschaftlers, dessen Methoden nicht geeignet seien, die Hervorbringungen des Geistes (durchaus in doppelter Bedeutung), insbesondere die Werke der Dichtkunst, zu erfassen.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p rend="firstLineIndent">
+                  <s>Damit ist der Spannungsbogen beschrieben, den diese Studie umreißt, als deren Themenstellung der Motivkomplex von Alkohol und Eugenik gelten kann, ohne jedoch in der Motivuntersuchung einen Selbstzweck zu sehen.</s>
+                  <s>Ziel ist es vielmehr, Erkenntnisse über Hauptmanns künstlerisches Selbstverständnis und dessen Implikationen für seine Selbstinszenierung wie auch seine öffentliche Wahrnehmung zu gewinnen (so ungefähr ließe sich die übergeordnete Problemstellung formulieren).</s>
+                  <s>›Selbstverständnis‹ schließt hier ästhetische oder poetische Positionen wie auch das gesellschaftliche Rollenverständnis des Dichters ein.</s>
+                  <s>Die Problemstellung hat im weiteren Sinne also eine literatursoziologische Dimension, die jedoch nicht explizit, etwa als Methode, einbezogen wird.</s>
+                  <s>Im Zentrum der Betrachtung steht Hauptmanns Werk (einschließlich privater Aufzeichnungen), in dem sich das Selbstverständnis des Dichters widerspiegelt.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+   <TEI xml:id="ICC.German.CCBY.LSO.HMS.00002">
+      <teiHeader>
+         <fileDesc>
+            <titleStmt>
+               <title>LSO/HMS.00002 Schmies, Maximilian; Hunecke, Marcel: Soziale Aktivierung zum gemeinschaftlichen Gärtnern. Ein Leitfaden für die partizipative Förderung von Gemeinschaftsgärten in Städten und Quartieren. - Dortmund, 2017 [Extract]</title>
+               <respStmt>
+                  <resp>compiled by ICC</resp>
+                  <name>ICC: IDS</name>
+               </respStmt>
+            </titleStmt>
+            <publicationStmt>
+               <distributor>
+                  <note>NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION</note>
+                  <note>German Reference Corpus DeReKo</note>
+               </distributor>
+               <idno>ID</idno>
+            </publicationStmt>
+            <sourceDesc>
+               <bibl>
+                  <author>Schmies, Maximilian; Hunecke, Marcel</author>
+                  <title>Soziale Aktivierung zum gemeinschaftlichen Gärtnern</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Dortmund</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Fachhochschule Dortmund</publisher>
+                  <date when="2017">2017</date>
+               </bibl>
+            </sourceDesc>
+         </fileDesc>
+         <profileDesc>
+            <textClass>
+               <classCode scheme="ICC">Learned_Social_Sciences</classCode>
+            </textClass>
+         </profileDesc>
+         <revisionDesc>
+            <change when="2022-12-21" who="IDS">Updated conversion from TEI I5</change>
+         </revisionDesc>
+      </teiHeader>
+      <text xml:lang="de">
+         <body>
+            <div n="3" type="chapter">
+               <head>Schritt 3: Einbeziehung &amp; Planung</head>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head>BALANCE ZWISCHEN OFFENHEIT UND RAHMENSETZUNG</head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Gemeinsames Planen und Entscheiden auf Augenhöhe stellt das Herzstück der Partizipation dar.</s>
+                     <s>Auch bei der Entstehung von neuen Gemeinschaftsgärten wäre der Idealzustand, wenn alle Betroffenen in Stadt oder Quartier das Vorgehen demokratisch abstimmen und in einem offenen Prozess Flächen auswählen und neue Gärten planen.</s>
+                     <s>Die Erfahrungen aus GeSiGa zeigen jedoch, dass die Resonanz auf abstrakte Planungs- und Gesprächsveranstaltungen zu Beginn eher gering ist.</s>
+                     <s>Dies gilt sowohl für die Einbeziehung der Garteninteressierten aus der Nachbarschaft als auch für den strategischen Dialog mit Multiplikatoren.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>Einbeziehung von interessierten BürgerInnen</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Der überwiegende Teil der BürgerInnen, die auf die Ansprache reagieren, bringt eine hohe Motivation zum praktischen Handeln mit sich und kommt mit der Erwartung zu Veranstaltungen, dass dort etwas geschieht.</s>
+                        <s>Nach den Erfahrungen in GeSiGa stehen hierbei zu Beginn zwei Fragen im Mittelpunkt: ‚Wo soll der Garten entstehen?‘ ‚Wie können wir mitmachen und diesen ausgestalten?‘ Daher empfiehlt es sich, den Prozess zu Beginn nicht zu offen zu gestalten, sondern einen klaren Rahmen vorzugeben.</s>
+                        <s>Dies erleichtert den Einstieg und eröffnet Räume für bürgerliches Engagement.</s>
+                        <s>Wie schon während der Analysephase gilt: Der Stein soll ins Rollen gebracht werden.</s>
+                        <s>Legen Sie das Augenmerk also nicht zu stark auf das Planen und Aushandeln im Vorhinein.</s>
+                        <s>Werden Sie stattdessen früh konkret und stellen Sie eine Fläche zur Verfügung, die als Planungsgrundlage dient, damit schnell in die gemeinschaftliche Umsetzung übergegangen werden kann.</s>
+                        <s>Aufwendige Beteiligungsverfahren, in deren Verlauf die Wünsche der BürgerInnen eingeholt und gemeinsam mit der Politik Leitbilder oder Rahmensetzungen ausgehandelt werden, sind eher für die Verstetigung der Aktivierung zielführend (siehe Schritt 5).</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>Strategischer Dialog mit Multiplikatoren</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Für eine langfristige Perspektive ist es vielversprechend, soziale Träger, Kulturvereine und Interessensgruppen ins Gespräch zu holen und mit ihnen eine gemeinsame Strategie zur Förderung von Gemeinschaftsgärten zu entwickeln.</s>
+                        <s>Urbanes Gärtnern stellt für die meisten Akteure jedoch lediglich einen interessanten Nebenschauplatz dar, der auf der Prioritätenliste nicht weit oben steht.</s>
+                        <s>Organisationen, die das Gärtnern unterstützen wollen, wünschen sich konkrete Gartenprojekte an denen sie sich beteiligen oder auf die sie hinweisen können.</s>
+                        <s>Die Erfahrung aus GeSiGa zeigt, dass für strategische Gespräche oder einen eigenen Arbeitskreis zum Urbanen Gärtnern daher häufig die Zeit fehlt.</s>
+                        <s>Um mit Akteuren trotzdem strategische Planungen voranzutreiben, empfehlen wir daher bestehende Kooperationsnetzwerke zu nutzen, bspw. Arbeitskreise zur Integrationsarbeit oder anderen sozialen Themen, oder Nachbarschaftsgremien in Quartieren.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>BÜRGERWERKSTÄTTEN &amp; VERANSTALTUNGEN</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Bürgerwerkstätten sind wichtige Kontaktpunkte und Vernetzungsforen während der Aktivierung.</s>
+                     <s>Hier lernen sich interessierte BürgerInnen aus der Nachbarschaft kennen und treffen auf die VertreterInnen von Unterstützerorganisationen und Verwaltung.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="italic">Informations- und Vernetzungsveranstaltungen</hi>, beispielsweise mit Multiplikatoren organisiert, sind zum Auftakt der Aktivierung ein guter Weg um viele Leute zu erreichen.</s>
+                     <s>Ein kurzer Vortrag als Impuls und offene Diskussionsrunden bieten die Gelegenheit, sich mit dem neuen Thema zu beschäftigen.</s>
+                     <s>Für das Ziel, neue Gärten entstehen zu lassen, wurden gute Erfahrungen mit niederschwelligen 
+              <hi rend="italic">Planungswerkstätten</hi> gemacht.</s>
+                     <s>Diese zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass in informellem Rahmen und auf Augenhöhe anhand einer konkreten Fläche das weitere Vorgehen zum Gartenbau besprochen wird.</s>
+                     <s>Bei der Vorbereitung sollte auch bedacht werden, dass Ort und Zielgruppe zusammenpassen: Wenn es beispielsweise um die Pla-
+              <pb break="no" n="22"/>nung eines Schulgartens geht, kann die Bürgerwerkstatt direkt in der Schule stattfinden und mit einer Flächenbegehung verbunden werden.</s>
+                     <s>Weitere interessante Orte sind Gaststätten, Nachbarschaftszentren oder die Räumlichkeiten von lokalen Akteuren.</s>
+                     <s>Planungswerkstätten sollten so praxisnah wie möglich sein und den BürgerInnen jederzeit das Gefühl geben, dass etwas passiert und nicht zerredet wird.</s>
+                     <s>Auf aufwändige Moderationsmethoden kann daher weitestgehend verzichtet werden.</s>
+                     <s>Essentiell ist eine erfahrene Gesprächsleitung, die dafür sorgt, dass alle Stimmen gehört werden und der rote Faden verfolgt wird.</s>
+                     <s>Wichtig ist zudem, dass zeitnah mit der Umsetzung des Gartens begonnen werden kann.</s>
+                     <s>Nichts lähmt das Engagement mehr, als lange, unfreiwillige Wartezeiten.</s>
+                     <s>Stärker strukturierte 
+              <hi rend="italic">Beteiligungsveranstaltungen</hi> eignen sich dann, wenn Ideen und Wünsche aus der Bürgerschaft gesammelt und gemeinsame Ziele definiert werden sollen.</s>
+                     <s>Moderationsmethoden, wie Kartenabfragen oder Visualisierungen können dann ein wichtiges Element sein.</s>
+                     <s>Dies bietet sich insbesondere an, wenn neue Flächen identifiziert oder langfristige Perspektiven ausgelotet werden sollen.</s>
+                     <s>Ein derartiges Vorgehen funktioniert allerdings erfahrungsgemäß nur, wenn das Thema unter den BürgerInnen bereits bekannt ist und ein öffentliches Interesse besteht, sich mit solchen eher abstrakten Fragen auseinanderzusetzen.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <hi rend="bold">Abbildung 17: </hi>Offene Planungswerkstätten ermöglichen den Initiatoren und den Interessierten einen Austausch auf Augenhöhe und sind der Ort an dem die gemeinsame Vision des Gartens Gestalt bekommt (Quelle: Lauter Kommunikation) 
+              <pb n="24"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>LEITFRAGEN ZUR GARTENPLANUNG</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Gemeinschaftsgärten können weder am Reißbrett geplant, noch strategisch gesteuert werden.</s>
+                     <s>Ein kleinschrittiges Vorgehen bewahrt Offenheit und sorgt dafür, dass das Projekt lebendig und für alle Beteiligten nachvollziehbar bleibt.</s>
+                     <s>Gemeinschaftsgärten sind Experimentierräume, die organisch wachsen und sich durch das Engagement der Beteiligten entwickeln.</s>
+                     <s>Dass dabei Widersprüche auftreten und gewisse Vorstellungen unvereinbar erscheinen, liegt in der Natur der Sache.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Unterschiedlichkeiten gilt es zusammenzuführen und sorgfältig zu integrieren.</s>
+                     <s>Die partizipative Planung eines Gemeinschaftsgartens mit interessierten BürgerInnen sollte daher grundsätzlich als ergebnisoffener Prozess verstanden werden.</s>
+                     <s>Die folgenden Fragen bieten Orientierung und können dabei helfen der Gartenplanung eine Richtschnur zu geben.</s>
+                  </p>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>An welche Zielgruppe richtet sich der Garten?</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Ein Nachbarschaftsgarten richtet sich an alle BewohnerInnen des Quartiers, in einem Schulgarten hingegen liegt der Fokus eher auf den Kindern und ihren Eltern.</s>
+                        <s>Wird ein Garten mit der Sozialberatung oder der Tafel gegründet, so sind Erwerbslose besonders im Blick.</s>
+                        <s>Entsteht in Kooperation mit einer Wohnbaugesellschaft ein Garten in einem Hinterhof, so ist er automatisch weniger offen angelegt, als ein von der Straße sichtbarer Garten.</s>
+                        <s>Wenn der Garten eine interkulturelle Philosophie verfolgen soll, so steht der kulturelle Austausch im Vordergrund.</s>
+                        <s>Egal welche Richtung der Garten nehmen soll, um die Erwartungen der Beteiligten zu klären, ist es sinnvoll sich auf eine grobe Richtung festzulegen: Beispielsweise „ein offener Garten für die ganze Stadt“, „ein interkultureller Frauengarten“, „ein Schulgarten“, oder „ein Selbstversorgergarten für die Anwohner des Blocks“.</s>
+                        <s>Wichtig ist es, sich bewusst zu bleiben, dass zunächst nur die ‚Keimzelle‘ eines Gartens entsteht, die sich weiter entwickeln und eine neue Richtung bekommen kann.</s>
+                        <s>Auch der Versuch von Beginn an alle Interessensgruppen unter einen Hut zu bekommen, kann schnell ausufern und das Projekt lähmen.</s>
+                        <s>Wenn beispielsweise ein interkultureller Garten entstehen soll, ist es ratsam sich deshalb zunächst auf einige wenige kulturelle Gruppen, zu denen bereits gute Kontakte bestehen, zu konzentrieren, um ein tragfähiges Fundament zu schaffen.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>Soll der Garten eine besondere Funktion erfüllen?</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>In GeSiGa wurden zu Beginn der Aktivierung gute Erfahrungen mit einem auf 2 Jahre temporär angelegten Garten an einem zentralen Ort in der Innenstadt gemacht.</s>
+                        <s>BürgerInnen und Organisationen konnten auf einer von der Stadt zur Verfügung gestellten Fläche 
+                <hi rend="bold">Abbildung 19:</hi>Bei einer Flächenbegehung reifen die Ideen aus der Planungsphase und ein erstes Gemeinschaftsgefühl entsteht (Quelle: GemeinSinnschafftGarten) 
+                <pb n="25"/>ihre eigenen Hochbeete zimmern und Patenschaften übernehmen.</s>
+                        <s>Dabei entstanden 16 Hochbeete mit Patenschaften von u.a. dem BUND, den Naturfreunden, der Flüchtlingshilfe, einem lokalen Bürgerverein, einem Jugendzentrum, einer Kindertagesstätte, sowie interessierten BürgerInnen aus der Nachbarschaft.</s>
+                        <s>Ein derartiger Garten bringt das Gärtnern auf die Bühne der Öffentlichkeit und macht es für alle sichtbar und erfahrbar.</s>
+                        <s>Wichtige Multiplikatoren erhalten mit relativ geringem Aufwand die Gelegenheit sich einzubringen.</s>
+                        <s>Damit erfüllt er vor allem eine aktivierende Funktion.</s>
+                        <s>Um Missverständnisse zu vermeiden sollte dies von vorneherein klar kommuniziert werden, denn nicht jedeR gärtnert gern im Schaufenster und auf begrenzte Zeit.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>Wo liegt die Trägerschaft des Gartens?</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Aus der Trägerschaft des Gartens leiten sich wichtige rechtliche und organisatorische Fragen ab.</s>
+                        <s>Aus der Stadt Andernach ist das Modell bekannt, dass die Stadt Obst und Gemüse auf Grünflächen anpflanzt, mit der Botschaft „Pflücken erlaubt“.</s>
+                        <s>Auch ein temporärer Schaugarten, bei dem BürgerInnen und Akteure Beetpatenschaften übernehmen, kann von der Stadt getragen werden.</s>
+                        <s>Für einen auf Dauer angelegten und selbstverwalteten Gemeinschaftsgarten ist eine städtische Trägerschaft hingegen eher ungeeignet.</s>
+                        <s>Stattdessen können die beteiligten BürgerInnen diese selbst übernehmen und bspw. einen Verein gründen.</s>
+                        <s>Wenn Unterstützerorganisationen im Boot sind, so bieten sie sich als Träger an, insbesondere wenn sie die Flächen aus eigenem Bestand zur Verfügung stellen.</s>
+                        <s>Welche Rolle der Träger eines Gartens bei der Verstetigung spielen kann, wird in Schritt 5: Verstetigung ausführlicher besprochen.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>Welche rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen gelten für die Fläche?</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Vorab sollte im Dialog mit den Eigentümern, möglichen Trägern und den zuständigen Verwaltungsstellen (bspw. Stadtplanungsamt, Tiefbauamt, Feuerwehr) geklärt werden, was auf der Fläche möglich ist und was nicht.</s>
+                        <s>Gibt es bauliche Richtlinien und Auflagen für das Anlegen eines Gartens und entsprechender Versorgungsinfrastrukturen, wie Wasser, Strom, Zufahrtswegen?</s>
+                        <s>Welche Auflagen gelten bezüglich Abfallentsorgung, Kompostierung, Lärmschutz, Brandschutz und Sicherheit?</s>
+                        <s>Wie ist die Fläche im Flächennutzungsplan ausgewiesen und liegen stadtplanerische Zukunftskonzepte für die Fläche und das Quartier vor?</s>
+                        <s>Sind in der direkten Nachbarschaft größere Bauprojekte geplant?</s>
+                        <s>Auch die angestrebten Nutzungsbedingungen, u.a. bezüglich Haftung, Versicherung, Pacht, Sicherheitsauflagen, geltenden Hausordnungen oder Bereitstellung von Infrastrukturen sollten vorab mit den beteiligten Akteuren geklärt werden.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+                  <div type="subsection">
+                     <head>
+                        <s>Wie ist die zeitliche Perspektive des Gartens?</s>
+                     </head>
+                     <p>
+                        <s>Ob eine Fläche langfristig verfügbar ist, oder nur eine Zwischennutzung möglich ist, ist meist schon zu Beginn des Projektes absehbar.</s>
+                        <s>Da dies weitreichende Konsequenzen für den Garten hat, sollte dies den Interessierten von Beginn an klar kommuniziert werden.</s>
+                        <s>Im Idealfall ist die Nutzung dauerhaft angelegt, diese Erwartung wurde im GeSiGa-Projekt von vielen BürgerInnen geäußert.</s>
+                        <s>Wenn ein Garten sich in der Nachbarschaft verwurzeln und Beete im Boden angelegt werden sollen, so braucht es eine gewisse Ruhe und Kontinuität, damit eine Gartengruppe zusammenwachsen kann.</s>
+                        <s>Aber auch eine begrenzte Nutzungsdauer kann eine vielversprechende Option sein, wie der temporäre Garten in GeSiGa gezeigt hat.</s>
+                     </p>
+                  </div>
+               </div>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>AKTIVIERUNG ALS EISBERG-METAPHER</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Zu Beginn des Aktivierungsprozesses kann es passieren, dass die Resonanz trotz wochenlangem Aufwand und zahllosen Gesprächen nur gering erscheint und lediglich eine Handvoll InteressentInnen den Weg zu einer Veranstaltung findet.</s>
+                     <s>Diese Erfahrung wurde auch in Ge-SiGa gemacht und trotzdem war der Prozess am Ende durchaus erfolgreich.</s>
+                     <s>Hilfreich ist es, den sozialen Aktivierungsprozess mit der Metapher eines Eisberges zu vergleichen.</s>
+                     <s>Über der Wasseroberfläche sichtbar sind lediglich die hochengagierten Leute, die zu Veranstaltungen kommen, aktiv die Werbetrommel rühren und sich in die Gartenprojekte einbringen.</s>
+                     <s>Unter der Wasseroberfläche hingegen befindet sich eine weit größere Menge an BürgerInnen, die zwar grundsätzlich Interesse haben, aber sich aktuell nicht im Prozess beteiligen.</s>
+                     <s>Die Gründe dafür sind mannigfaltig: Manche haben keine Zeit, wohnen nicht in der Nähe des geplanten Gartens oder haben bereits einen Garten.</s>
+                     <s>Andere sind mit den Rahmenbedingungen nicht zufrieden, können den Aufwand nicht abschätzen oder wollen grundsätzlich erst einmal abwarten was passiert.</s>
+                     <s>Je länger die Aktivierung dauert, desto größer wird die Chance, dass das Potential dieser zahlreichen Passiv-Interessierten zum Leben erwacht.</s>
+                     <s>
+                        <pb n="26"/>
+                     </s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+            <div n="4" type="chapter">
+               <head>
+                  <s>Schritt 4: Umsetzung</s>
+               </head>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <p>
+                     <s>schaftsgartens geht, sollte grundsätzlich zwischen zwei Möglichkeiten unterschieden werden: 1. Es besteht bereits eine Gruppe, die sich selbst organisiert und den Garten gründen möchte: Dieser Fall ist wahrscheinlich, wenn es in der Stadt bereits eine gut vernetzte Gartenbewegung gibt, oder eine Organisation es sich zum Anliegen macht, einen Garten zu gründen.</s>
+                     <s>Damit ist es nicht mehr notwendig die Rolle des Anschiebers zu übernehmen.</s>
+                     <s>Das Augenmerk sollte nun darauf liegen den Selbstorganisationsprozess durch geeignete Rahmenbedingungen zu unterstützen (siehe Schritt 5: Verstetigung).</s>
+                     <s>2. Im Laufe der Aktivierung haben sich Interessent-Innen lose zusammengefunden, möchten gärtnern, wissen aber nicht wo und wie sie damit beginnen sollen: In diesem Falle geht die Aktivierung in die Umsetzungsphase.</s>
+                     <s>Als Initiator stellt sich die Aufgabe den gemeinschaftlichen Bau des Gartens zu koordinieren und zu moderieren.</s>
+                     <s>Die folgenden Hinweise geben dazu Hilfestellung an die Hand.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+               <div type="section">
+                  <head>
+                     <s>EIN GEMEINSCHAFTSGARTEN ENTSTEHT GEMEINSCHAFTLICH</s>
+                  </head>
+                  <p>
+                     <s>Wir empfehlen den Garten vom ersten Spatenstich an als gemeinschaftliches Projekt aufzuziehen.</s>
+                     <s>Schnell entsteht dadurch ein Wir-Gefühl unter den MitmacherInnen und sie identifizieren sich mit dem neuen Garten.</s>
+                     <s>Die Lust am Selbermachen und Mitgestalten ist eines der wichtigsten Motive fürs Gärtnern.</s>
+                     <s>Gemeinschaftsgärten sind ein Ort an dem man sich ausprobieren und neue Fertigkeiten erlernen kann.</s>
+                     <s>Es ist daher davon abzuraten, vorgefertigte Beete aufzustellen, die nur noch bepflanzt werden müssen.</s>
+                     <s>In GeSiGa sind alle BürgerInnen zu offenen Bautagen eingeladen worden, an denen gemeinsam zu Werke gegangen wurde.</s>
+                     <s>Unter der Anleitung von erfahrenen Handwerkern und Gärtnern entstanden so in kurzer Zeit zahlreiche Hochbeete und Sitzmöbel.</s>
+                     <s>Da ein Garten natürlich nicht an einem einzigen Tag entsteht, ist zu empfehlen einen wöchentlichen Bautermin einzuberufen.</s>
+                     <s>Das Engagement bleibt damit weiterhin gebündelt und Neulinge können einfach hinzustoßen.</s>
+                  </p>
+               </div>
+            </div>
+         </body>
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+               <title>LSO/BVT.00003 Banholzer, Volker M.: Technikjournalismus und die soziale Konstruktion von Märkten. Zum Beitrag fachjournalistischer Kommunikation in medialisierten Technik- und Innovationsmärkten. - Nürnberg, 2016 [Extract]</title>
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+                  <author>Banholzer, Volker M.</author>
+                  <title>Technikjournalismus und die soziale Konstruktion von Märkten</title>
+                  <pubPlace>Nürnberg</pubPlace>
+                  <publisher>Technische Hochschule Nürnberg</publisher>
+                  <date when="2016">2016</date>
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+         <body>
+            <p>
+               <s>Demzufolge steht Innovationskommunikation in journalistischen Angeboten, zumindest in Massenmedien, vor einem Dilemma.</s>
+               <s>Innovationstätigkeit ist für eine Volkswirtschaft als zentraler Faktor identifiziert worden.</s>
+               <s>Innovationstätigkeit ist wiederum abhängig von Irritation bestehender Lösungsansätze bzw. gewohnheiten einerseits und andererseits von der Wahrnehmung von Konkurrenz, die über eine direkte Beobachtung von bekannten Wettbewerbern hinausgeht.</s>
+               <s>Schriftenreihe der Technischen Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm 33 Demgegenüber steht die Tatsache, dass die Information über neue Lösungen zwangsläufig von Partialinteressen beeinflusst ist und die Tragweite bzw. der wirtschaftliche Erfolg schwer prognostizierbar ist.</s>
+               <s>Wenn der Erfolg einer Innovation zudem aber abhängig von der medialen Aufmerksamkeit ist, die Konkurrenzwahrnehmungen ermöglicht und die Akzeptanz schafft bzw. zumindest in gewissem Maße als Rationalitätsfiktion für Entscheidungen dient, dann steht Journalismus vor der Anforderung mehr über Technik, Technologien und technische Innovationen berichten zu müssen.</s>
+               <s>Die gesellschaftliche und wirtschaftliche Bedeutung von Innovationen liefert eine valide Begründung für eine ausführliche Berichterstattung.</s>
+               <s>Die Beurteilung der technischen Tragweite wird vor allem für Wirtschaftsmedien schwierig sein, dafür können andere Kriterien herangezogen werden.</s>
+               <s>Einerseits kann die Eigenschaft einer Mehrsystemauswirkung 50 wie es Nordfors formuliert hat als Basis dienen.</s>
+               <s>Ein weiteres Kriterium mit Blick auf technische Innovationen kann die Einordnung anhand der Ausprägung von (geographischen) Marktveränderungen, Technikweiterentwicklung oder der zusätzlichen Veränderung von Management- und Geschäftsmodellen bieten.</s>
+               <s>Wie in Abb. 16 skizziert, lassen sich so die Kanäle Massenmedien, Wirtschaftsmedien einerseits und Fachmedien andererseits zuordnen.</s>
+               <s>Anhand Abb. 16 ist nachzuvollziehen, welche Kommunikationsleistungen eine bestimmte Konstellation von Technikinnovation und Marktmodell impliziert.</s>
+               <s>Bei etablierten Technologien und etablierten Märkten wird sich die Kommunikation darauf beschränken, Produkte und Dienstleistungen in Erinnerung zu halten bzw. Details in Katalogform zu präsentieren.</s>
+               <s>Hier sind Rezipienten nicht auf eine Einordnung durch journalistische Angebote angewiesen.</s>
+               <s>Der Markt ist durch Preiswettbewerb und Verdrängungsmechanismen gekennzeichnet.</s>
+               <s>Treten, in diesem Kontext inkrementelle Innovationen auf, die zumeist kundeninduziert in die bestehenden Märkte eingreifen, werden vor allem fachjournalistische Leistungen gefordert sein, die diese Technologien einordnen und ggf. bewerten.</s>
+               <s>Die größte Herausforderung für Leistungsanbieter stellen Innovationen dar, die neue Märkte erschließen oder etablieren sollen.</s>
+               <s>Bei der Expansion etablierter Technologien in neue Märkte sind Fachmedien gefordert, die technische Passung oder ggf. die erforderliche Anpassung und Zertifizierungen verorten sowie Wirtschaftsmedien, die wirtschaftliche Aspekte bewerten.</s>
+               <s>Im Fall von neuen Technologien, die eine Änderung von Geschäftsmodellen nach sich ziehen, sind sowohl Massen- als auch Wirtschafts- und Fachmedien erforderlich, um im Sinne der oben beschriebenen Mechanismen einer Marktkonstitution und Stabilisierung mitwirken zu können.</s>
+               <s>Schriftenreihe der Technischen Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm  </s>
+            </p>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>Exkurs: Medienrepräsentanz von KMU und Hidden Champions </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Gruppe der mittelständischen Unternehmen 51 oder der kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen (KMU) gilt allgemein als eine der besonderen Stärken der deutschen Volkswirtschaft.</s>
+                  <s>Vor allem mit Blick auf ihre große Bedeutung für Beschäftigung und Innovation.</s>
+                  <s>Betont wird zudem regelmäßig die Rolle der sogenannten Hidden Champions (Simon 1990).</s>
+                  <s>(Vgl. EFI 2016: 32) Die Hidden Champions stehen wegen ihrer Größe, ihrer Ausrichtung auf Nischenmärkte bzw. auf Märkte mit einem im Vergleich geringen Nachfragevolumen, ihrer Position in der Wertschöpfungskette oder als Zulieferer für andere Unternehmen selten im Zentrum der öffentlichen Aufmerksamkeit.</s>
+                  <s>Ihr Umsatz liegt klassischerweise unter einer Milliarde Euro.</s>
+                  <s>Dem oben geschilderten Kriterium der Relevanz entsprechend, sind sie auch in Massenmedien als einzelne Unternehmen zwangsläufig unterrepräsentiert.</s>
+                  <s>In Deutschland werden aktuell rund 1.500 Unternehmen als Hidden Champions 52 bezeichnet.</s>
+                  <s>Sie beschäftigten zusammen rund 500.000 Personen und erzielen einen Jahresumsatz von rund 150 Mrd.</s>
+                  <s>Euro.</s>
+                  <s>Dies bedeutet, dass sie im Durchschnitt rund 320 Mitarbeiter und einen Umsatz von rund 100 Mio. Euro ausweisen.</s>
+                  <s>(Vgl Rammer/Frietsch 2015: 16) Hidden Champions sind global ausgerichtet und erwirtschaften den größten Teil ihres Umsatzes auf Auslandsmärkten.</s>
+                  <s>Zudem verfügen sie in ihren jeweiligen Märkten über einen so hohen Marktanteil, dass sie zu den wichtigsten Anbietern zählen und damit die Entwicklung in ihrem Markt wesentlich prägen.</s>
+                  <s>Trotz umfangreicher Ratgeberliteratur, die Geschäftsmodelle, Verhalten oder Positionierung von Hidden Champions als nachahmenswert empfehlen, finden sie vor allem in der Wirtschaftsberichterstattung wenig Platz.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Gerade in der in diesem Zusammenhang beschriebenen Investitionsgüterindustrie ist die Mehrzahl der Hidden Champions, rund 85 Prozent, verortet.</s>
+                  <s>Fast ein Viertel aller deutschen Hidden Champions kommen aus dem Maschinenbau.</s>
+                  <s>Jeweils rund zehn Prozent sind in der Metall- und Elektroindustrie tätig.</s>
+                  <s>Kleinen und mittelgroßen Unternehmen (KMU) kommen bei der Technologiegenese in unterschiedlichen Innovationssystemen unterschiedliche Rollen zu.</s>
+                  <s>Legt man die Zahl der Patentanmeldungen 53 zugrunde, stammen in Norwegen, Australien, Italien und Israel etwa die Hälfte der Patentanmeldungen von KMU.</s>
+                  <s>Im Durchschnitt aller Länder ist dies etwa ein Viertel und für Japan, das von wenigen Großkonzernen und ihren Konzernnetzwerken abhängig ist, sind es weniger als 10 %.</s>
+                  <s>Auch Deutschland liegt in diesem internationalen Vergleich mit einer Quote von ca. 20 % am unteren Ende.</s>
+                  <s>„Dies liegt zum Teil an der Branchenstruktur und dem technologischen Profil der Volkswirtschaften, zum Teil aber auch an einer Arbeitsteilung zwischen Unternehmen, die sich in der Innovationskultur ausdrückt.“ (Rammert/Frietsch 2015: 20) Beim Indikator Patentanmeldungen spielt allerdings neben der Innovationskultur auch die Industriestruktur der Länder eine bedeutende Rolle.</s>
+                  <s>„Während einige Branchen stark auf Patente setzen, um ihre Erfindungen zu schützen, ist in anderen Branchen Geheimhaltung als Schutzmechanismus deutlich weiter verbreitet.“ (EFI 2016: 38) Deshalb kann die die Innovationsstärke deutscher KMU nicht ausschließlich anhand der Patentintensität beurteilt werden.</s>
+                  <s>Die rund 1.500 Hidden Champions investieren mehr als fünf Prozent der gesamten FuE-Ausgaben der deutschen Wirtschaft und sind zudem für rund fünf Prozent des Neuproduktumsatzes verantwortlich.</s>
+                  <s>Definiert man diesen Neuproduktumsatz enger als Weltmarktneuheiten, so tragen Hidden Champions 15 Prozent zum gesamten Umsatz mit Weltmarktneuheiten der deutschen Wirtschaft bei.</s>
+                  <s>(Vgl. Rammert/Frietsch 19) Dass die Hidden Champions im globalen Wettbewerb stehen, macht eine Tatsache deutlich.</s>
+                  <s>Für viele der Hidden Champions in Deutschland lässt sich ein sehr ähnliches japanisches Unternehmen finden, das in seinem Heimatmarkt Marktführer, aber auf dem Weltmarkt nur schwach vertreten ist.</s>
+                  <s>Diese „sleeping dragons“ werden aktuell vom japanischen Handelsministerium im Rahmen eines Revitalisierungsprogramms für Regionen außerhalb der industriellen Ballungsräume gefördert.</s>
+                  <s>(Vgl. Innovationsindiskator 2015: 52) 35  </s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Innovative KMU und Hidden Champions sind in der Wirtschaftspresse kaum vertreten.</s>
+                  <s>Fachjournalistische Leistungsangebote stellen die Produkte und Dienstleitungen dieser Firmen sehr wohl in den Mittelpunkt und tragen so zur Marktbildung bei.</s>
+                  <s>Gerade mit Blick auf die globalen Wettbewerber ist ein international orientierter Fachjournalismus erforderlich, um Wettbewerb sichtbar zu machen.</s>
+                  <s>Erschwert wird dies durch die oben benannte Schutzstrategie der Geheimhaltung.</s>
+                  <s>Hier ist das fachjournalistische Angebot auf die initiative Kommunikationsleistung der Leistungsanbieter angewiesen.</s>
+                  <s>Die mangelnde Präsenz in Massenmedien, hier vor allem auch die fehlende Berichterstattung über Technologien, wirkt sich auch verstärkend auf ein Innovationshemmnis aus – die Fremdfinanzierung.</s>
+                  <s>„Der Anteil der innovationsaktiven KMU, deren Innovationsaktivitäten durch den Mangel an internen Finanzierungsquellen behindert wurden, (liegt) (…) in der Periode 2012 bis 2014 (bei) 30 Prozent.“ (EFI 2016: 41) Für die z. B. bankenseitige Beurteilung von Innovationen bzw. für eine Weiterentwicklung eines Unternehmens einzusetzenden innovativen Technologien ist eine massenmediale Berichterstattung hilfreich.</s>
+                  <s>In diesem Zusammenhang sind kreditgebende Instanzen in einer Entscheidungssituation.</s>
+                  <s>Die Entscheider werden ihre Entscheidung durch Heranziehen von externen Informationen wie die der Wirtschaftsberichterstattung einordnen und absichern.</s>
+                  <s>Hier kann ein journalistisches Leistungsangebot innovationsbegünstigend wirken.</s>
+                  <s>Neben Möglichkeit der Beobachtung von Wettbewerbern in der Konkurrenz um die Aufmerksamkeit von Leistungsempfängern, bietet die Berichterstattung auch die gemeinsame Konkurrenz der Leistungsanbieter mit anderen branchenfremden Unternehmen, die ebenso auf Kredite des Bankensystems angewiesen sind.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="section">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>6.3 Innovationsberichterstattung und Industrie 4.0 54</s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Auf Industrie 4.0 und die daran anschließende Berichterstattung ist bereits mehrfach verwiesen worden.</s>
+                  <s>In der Tat lassen sich anhand dieses Themas einige Aspekte der Argumentation verdeutlichen.</s>
+                  <s>Industrie 4.0 ist als Innovation zu bezeichnen, obwohl unter diesem Begriff weder ein Produkt noch eine einzelne Technologie zu verstehen ist.</s>
+                  <s>Wie an angegebener Stelle (vgl. Fußnote 52) erläutert, ist Industrie 4.0 ein Konzept, das einen Trend zur Integration von vor allem auf Digitalisierung basierenden innovativen oder innovativ zu verknüpfenden Technologien, Dienstleistungen und Geschäftsmodellen in Produktions- und Vertriebsstrukturen beschreibt und das ausgehend von der Industrie tiefgreifende Auswirkungen auf nahezu alle Subsysteme der Gesellschaft entfaltet.</s>
+                  <s>Vor diesem Hintergrund erklärt sich auch, dass dieses Thema Eingang in die Berichterstattung von Massenmedien gefunden hat.</s>
+                  <s>Industrie 4.0 hat als Konzept Einfluss auf die gesamte Industrieproduktion, angefangen vom Maschinen- und Anlagenbau bis hin zu Zulieferindustrien wie der Elektroindustrie.</s>
+                  <s>Zudem integriert der Ansatz Technologien aus dem IT-Sektor in die Produktionsebene.</s>
+                  <s>Durch die Effekte von Flexibilisierung sowie Effizienzsteigerung hat eine Umsetzung von Industrie 4.0-Konzepten auch erhebliche Auswirkungen auf die Arbeitsplätze und die Beschäftigungssituation in einer Volkswirtschaft.</s>
+                  <s>Einhergehend mit den Veränderungen am Arbeitsmarkt wird auch das Bildungssystem reagieren.</s>
+                  <s>Nicht zuletzt deshalb ist auch gesamtgesellschaftlich ein Diskurs erforderlich.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Dementsprechend erfüllt Industrie 4.0 als Konzept die Bedingungen, die für eine Berichterstattung nach journalistischen Objektivitätskriterien gefordert werden.</s>
+                  <s>Das Thema ist hochrelevant für die Volkswirtschaft und die gesellschaftliche Struktur in Deutschland.</s>
+                  <s>Das Thema ist hinreichend abstrahiert, sodass mit der Berichterstattung keine Werbung für einen bestimmten Anbieter von Lösungen impliziert ist.</s>
+                  <s>Sowohl Regierung und Opposition als auch Verbände und Gewerkschaften sind in dem aktuell zu beobachtenden Diskurs beteiligt, sodass auch hier hinreichend viele Positionen eine umfangreiche Berichterstattung rechtfertigen können.</s>
+                  <s>Die im Diskurs angeführten Zahlen von Wachstumspotentialen oder auch die befürchtete umfangreiche technische Arbeitslosigkeit, rechtfertigen eine prominente Berichterstattung.</s>
+                  <s>Auch für die eher auf der Organisationsebene verorteten Probleme von Innovationskommunikation bietet das Konzept bzw. in diesem Zusammenhang der Begriff Anschlussmöglichkeiten.</s>
+                  <s>Der Begriff Industrie 4.0 suggeriert eine Kontinuität, die dem Argument entgegenwirkt, Rezipienten hätten Angst vor Veränderung.</s>
+                  <s>Die Begrifflichkeit Industrie 4.0 oder Vierte Industrielle Revolution, hebt das Konzept von einer rein technischen Frage auf eine Ebene wirtschaftlicher Kontexte, für welche sich die Redaktionen kompetent und ausgestattet fühlen.</s>
+                  <s>Durch den Transfer auf die wirtschaftliche Ebene und damit auch durch die mögliche Personalisierung auf bekannte Branchenvertreter und Politiker wird das Thema für Massenmedien vereinfacht.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+            <div type="chapter">
+               <head rend="bold">
+                  <s>7. Schlussbetrachtung und Forschungsfragen </s>
+               </head>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Aufgabe von Medien in der Aktualisierung von Themenrelevanzen zur Akzeptanzsicherung für Technologien sowie für die Konkurrenzwahrnehmung und damit letztlich als Irritationsmechanismus und Anstoß für Innovationen oder als Plattform zur Information von Leistungsempfängern ist oben ausgeführt worden.</s>
+                  <s>Gerade der Fachjournalismus in Investitionsgüterbereichen hat noch wenig Beachtung in der wissenschaftlichen Diskussion gefunden.</s>
+                  <s>Hier gilt es Lücken zu schließen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Bedeutung und Rolle von (Fach-)Medien im Innovationsprozess verdeutlichen Abbildung 16 als auch mit Blick auf die Produktionstechnologien Abbildung 17. Die in Abb. 16 skizzierte Verteilung von Berichterstattungsanlässen auf bestimmte Kanäle muss empirisch überprüft werden.</s>
+                  <s>Ebenso die in Abb. 17 implizit getroffenen Aussagen zu Interesse von Typen journalistischer Angebote im Verlauf eines Innovationszyklus.</s>
+                  <s>Dass unterschiedliche Stakeholdergruppen zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten auf Medienleistungen angewiesen sind, lässt sich anhand der oben stehenden Ausführungen nachvollziehen.</s>
+                  <s>Diese journalistischen Angebote werden zielgruppenspezifisch aufbereitet sein.</s>
+                  <s>Und: in vorliegenden Untersuchungen werden nicht erhoben, welche Inhalte bzw. welchen Detailierungsgrad Entscheider von Informationen erwarten.</s>
+                  <s>Hierzu bietet Industrie 4.0 einen geeigneten Forschungsanlass.</s>
+               </p>
+               <p>
+                  <s>Die Frage, ob die vor allem im F&amp;E-Prozess erforderlichen Kommunikationsangebote als journalistische Leistungen zu klassifizieren oder eher den Regeln von Fachkommunikation unter Peers zu beschreiben sind soll an dieser Stellen nicht vertieft werden.</s>
+                  <s>55 Es ist allerdings anzunehmen, dass journalistische Angebote stakeholderabhängig und abhängig vom Zeitpunkt im Innovationszyklus in ihrer Wirkung variieren.</s>
+                  <s>Und: die Aufmerksamkeit der benannten Medien wird anhand interner Vorgaben bzw. berufsspezifischer Einstellungen für Selektion und Transformation Unterschiede aufweisen.</s>
+                  <s>Publikumsmedien werden früh Forschungsergebnisse als Bericht aus der Wissenschaft aufgreifen, da hier die entsprechenden Nachrichtenfaktoren greifen.</s>
+                  <s>Die Bedenken, durch eine Berichterstattung Werbung für ein Unternehmen oder ein Produkt zu machen, greifen noch nicht, da dieses Stadium als marktfern zu beschreiben ist.</s>
+                  <s>56 Das Interesse schwindet und tritt erst wieder auf, Schriftenreihe der Technischen Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm 37 wenn Technologien von mehreren Firmen im Markt angeboten werden.</s>
+                  <s>Diese Berichterstattung hat allerdings Einfluss auf das Meinungsbild bzw. die Informationslage der Bevölkerung und auch der von einer Technologieinnovation betroffenen Belegschaft.</s>
+                  <s>Fachmedien werden dann ein Thema aufgreifen, wenn Pilotphasen bzw. Feldtests anlaufen.</s>
+                  <s>Hier können sie noch einen Beitrag zur Marktkonstitution leisten.</s>
+                  <s>Mit Etablierung der Technik bleibt der Bedarf an journalistischen Angeboten bestehen, da sie, im Sinne der Terminologie von Abb. 16, als etablierte Technologie in einem etablierten Markt gehandelt werden.</s>
+               </p>
+            </div>
+         </body>
+      </text>
+   </TEI>
+</teiCorpus>
diff --git a/t/script.t b/t/script.t
index 51f5751..e7b93f3 100644
--- a/t/script.t
+++ b/t/script.t
@@ -773,5 +773,20 @@
   )->stderr_like(qr!GOE_AGA\.00000!);
 };
 
+subtest 'Standard TEI P5 testing' => sub {
+
+  my $t = test_tei2korapxml(
+      file => catfile($f, 'data', 'icc_german_sample.p5.xml'),
+      param => '--xmlid-to-textsigle \'ICC.German\.([^.]+\.[^.]+)\.(.+)@ICCGER/$1/$2\' -s -tk',
+      tmp => 'script_utf8_enc'
+  )->stderr_like(qr!tei2korapxml:.*? text_id=ICCGER/DeReKo-WPD17\.S00-18619!);
+
+  $t->unzip_xml('ICCGER/DeReKo-WPD17/E51-96136/data.xml')
+      ->content_like(qr/Recht auf persönliches Hab und Gut/);
+
+  $t->unzip_xml('ICCGER/CCBY-LTE/MJB-00001/header.xml')
+      ->text_is('textClass > classCode[scheme=ICC]', 'Learned_Technology', 'classCode is correctly extracted');
+
+};
 
 done_testing;
diff --git a/xt/benchmark.pl b/xt/benchmark.pl
index f618717..7caa1dc 100644
--- a/xt/benchmark.pl
+++ b/xt/benchmark.pl
@@ -40,6 +40,7 @@
 # Load example files
 my $file = rel2abs(catfile($f, '..', 't', 'data', 'goe_sample.i5.xml'));
 my $goe_tagged = rel2abs(catfile($f, '..', 't', 'data', 'goe_sample_tagged.i5.xml'));
+my $icc_german = rel2abs(catfile($f, '..', 't', 'data', 'icc_german_sample.p5.xml'));
 
 # Create a new benchmark object
 my $bench = Dumbbench->new(
@@ -96,6 +97,12 @@
     }
   ),
   Dumbbench::Instance::PerlSub->new(
+    name => 'Conversion of standard TEI',
+    code => sub {
+      `cat '$icc_german' | perl '$script' > /dev/null 2>&1`
+    }
+  ),
+  Dumbbench::Instance::PerlSub->new(
     name => 'delHTMLcom',
     code => sub {
       for (1..100_000) {